This work was supported by National Science Foundation (MCB 1021831, JM) and J. &amp; E. Biomedical Research Program (Florida Department of Health, JM).

1. Sample Preparations
<ol>
	<li>Carry out the sample preparation and all sample manipulations in a dark room to prevent an unwanted uncaging.</li>
	<li>Solubilize DM-nitrophen ((1-(2-nitro-4,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N,N,N',N'-tetrakis [(oxy-carbonyl) methyl]-1,2-ethanediamine) in 50 mM HEPES buffer, 100 mM KCl, pH 7.0 to a final concentration of 400 &#181;M (&#949;350nm = 4330 M-1cm-1 9).</li>
	<li>Add CaCl2 from the 0.1 M stock solution to achieve a desirable ratio of [Ca2+]:[DM-nitrophen]. For proteins with Kd for Ca2+ association larger than 10 &#181;M, the ratio of [Ca2+]:[DM-nitrophen] of 1:1 is preferable to prevent binding of photo-released Ca2+ to uncaged DM-nitrophen. Indeed, considering the Kd value for DM-nitrophen to be 10 nM and the total concentration of DM-nitrophen and Ca2+ to be 400 mM, ~90% of a calcium binding protein with Kd = 10 &#956;M will be in the apoform. On the other hand, for study of Ca2+ binding to proteins with Kd &#60; 10 &#181;M, it's preferable to decrease the [Ca2+]:[DM-nitrophen] ratio to 0.95 to prevent Ca2+ complexation with the apo-protein prior the cage photo-dissociation.</li>
	<li>Solubilize the reference compound, K3[Fe(III)(CN)6] or Na2CrO4, in the same buffer as for the sample.</li>
</ol>
2. Setting up the Experiment
<ol>
	<li>The basic experimental configuration is shown in Figure 2.</li>
	<li>Use a pin hole (P2) to adjust the diameter of the probe beam (632 nm output of He-Ne laser, ~5 mW laser power) to 1 mm and propagate the probe beam through the center of a cell placed in a temperature controlled cell holder using a M1 mirror.</li>
	<li>Use a mirror (M2) behind the sample to center the probe beam on a center of position sensitive detector.</li>
	<li>Focus the probe beam on the center of the detector in such way that the difference in the voltage between the top two diodes and bottom two diodes as well as the difference in the voltage between the two diodes on the left and right side of the detector is zero.</li>
	<li>Subsequently, shape a diameter of the pump beam, a 355 nm output of Q-switched Nd:YAG laser, FWHM 5 nsec) using a 3 mm pinhole (P1) placed between two 355 nm laser mirrors.</li>
	<li>Copropagate the pump beam through the center of the cuvette as demonstrated in Figure 2. It is important that both laser beams are propagated through the center of the optical cell in nearly colinear manner to obtain a measurable deflection angle and thus high amplitude of PBD signal. Under experimental conditions, the angle of the intersection of the probe and pump beams is less than 15&#176;.</li>
	<li>Use a reference compound to align the probe and pump beam to achieve a satisfactory PBD signal, i.e. a good S/N ratio and stable PBD amplitude on longer time-scales (~100 msec).</li>
	<li>Adjust the position of the pump beam with respect to the probe beam by an incremental adjustment of 355 nm laser mirrors.</li>
	<li>Measure the amplitude of the PBD reference signal as a difference in between two top and bottom photodiodes on the position sensitive detector. The PBD signal should exhibit a rapid increase in the amplitude on a fast time-scale (&#60;10 &#181;sec) and remain stable on 100 msec timescale as demonstrated in Figure 3. The shot to shot variability of the PDB amplitude is within 5% of the signal amplitude and the signal reproducibility is mainly affected by vibrations.</li>
	<li>Check the linearity in the PBD signal amplitude with respect to the released heat energy by measuring the linear dependence of the PBD signal on the excitation laser power and on the number of Einsteins absorbed, Ea = (1-10-A), where A corresponds to the reference absorbance at the excitation wavelength.</li>
	<li>Keep the laser power below approximately 1,000 &#181;J and absorbance of the sample/reference compound at the excitation wavelength less than 0.5 to prevent multiphoton absorption and decrease of the pump beam power, respectively, and ensure linearity of the PBD signal.</li>
</ol>
3. PBD Measurements
<ol>
	<li>Start with the measurement of the PBD traces for the reference. Place the solution of the reference compound in a 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm or 1.0 cm x 0.5 cm quartz cell and position the cell in the temperature controlled holder. Both path lengths provide comparable PBD amplitude.</li>
	<li>Detect the reference PBD signal as a function of temperature in the temperature range from 16-35 &#176;C with the temperature increment of 3 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Upon each temperature change, check the position of the probe beam on the position sensitive detector and readjust the position to the center of the detector if necessary.</li>
	<li>Check the linearity of the PBD signal as a function of the [(dn/dt)/Cp&#961;] term according to Equation 2.</li>
	<li>Place the sample solution in the same optical cell as for the reference compound keeping the same orientation of the optical cell as for the reference measurement.</li>
	<li>Detect the sample PBD traces in the same temperature range as for the reference and check the linearity of the sample PBD amplitude with respect to the [(dn/dt)/Cp&#961;] term.</li>
</ol>
4. Data Analysis
The magnitude of the deflection is directly proportional to the volume change due to the sample heating (&#916;Vth) and nonthermal volume change (&#916;Vnonth) according to Equation 1: <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq1.jpg" alt="Equation 1" /> 
The amplitude of the sample (AS) and reference (Ar) PBD signal can be described using Equations 2 and 3, respectively.
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq2.jpg" alt="Equation 2" /> 
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq3.jpg" alt="Equation 3" /> 

PBD signal is directly proportional to the instrument response parameter (K) and the number of Einsteins absorbed (Ea). The first term in Equation 2, (dn/dt)(1/&#961;Cp)Q, corresponds to the signal change due to the heat released to the solvent. The dn/dt term represents the temperature-dependent change in the index of refraction, &#961; is the density of the solvent, Cp is the heat capacity. All parameters are known for the distilled water and can be determined for a buffer solution by comparing a PBD signal for the reference compound in distilled water and in an appropriate buffer. Q is the amount of heat returned to the solvent. The &#961; (dn/d &#961; ) term is a unit-less constant that is temperature-independent in the temperature range from 10-40 &#176;C 10. &#916;nabs term corresponds to the change in the index of refraction due to the presence of absorbing species in the solution and it's negligible if the wavelength of the probe beam is shifted relative to the absorption spectra of any species in the solution. The signal arising from the reference compound (Ar) is expressed by Equation 3 where Eh&#957; is the photon energy at the excitation wavelength, Eh&#957; = 80.5 kcal/mol for 355 nm excitation.
<ol>
	<li>Take the amplitude of the reference PBD signal as the difference between the pretrigger and post trigger PBD signal as demonstrated in Figure 3. In a similar way, determine the amplitude of the fast (Asfast) and slow phase (Asslow) of the sample PBD signal.</li>
	<li>To eliminate the instrument response parameter, K, scale the amplitude of the sample PBD signal by the amplitude of the PBD signal for the reference. The ratio of the sample signal to the reference signal gives Equation 4 and can be written as:
	 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq4.jpg" alt="Equation 4" /> </li>
	<li>Using this equation, determine the heat released to the solution (Q) and nonthermal volume change (&#916;Vnonth) associated with a photo-initiated reaction from the slope and intercept, respectively, of a plot of [(As/Ar) Eh&#957;] term versus temperature dependent term [(dn/dt)(1/&#961;Cp)].</li>
	<li>To determine the reaction volume and enthalpy change for the fast and the slow process, scale the observed volume and enthalpy change to the appropriate quantum yield according to Equations 5-7.
		 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq5.jpg" alt="Equation 5" /> 
		 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq6.jpg" alt="Equation 6" /> 
		 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq7.jpg" alt="Equation 7" /> 
		 For a multistep process with kinetics occurring on the time-scale between 10 &#181;sec~200 msec, the volume and enthalpy changes associated with the individual steps of the reaction can be determined. The amplitudes and lifetimes for the individual steps are analyzed by fitting the data to the function F(t) that describes the time profile of the volume and enthalpy changes. 
			<img alt="Equation 8" src="/files/ftp_upload/50969/50969eq8.jpg" /> 
		where &#945;0 corresponds to the Asfast and &#945;i corresponds to Asslow for each individual process and &#964; i are the lifetime of the individual reaction steps. From the temperature-dependence of the rate constant for individual processes (ki = 1/&#964;i) the activation enthalpy and entropy parameters can be readily determined using Eyring plots.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Gensch, T., Viappiani, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-resolved+photothermal+methods:+accessing+time-resolved+thermodynamics+of+photoinduced+processes+in+chemistry+and+biology.">Time-resolved photothermal methods: accessing time-resolved thermodynamics of photoinduced processes in chemistry and biology.</a> Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 2, 699-721 (2003).</li><li>Larsen, R. W., Mik&#353;ovsk&#225;, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time+resolved+thermodynamics+of+ligand+binding+to+heme+proteins.">Time resolved thermodynamics of ligand binding to heme proteins.</a> Coord. Chem. Rev. 251 (9-10), 1101-1127 (2007).</li><li>Westrick, J. A., Peters, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+photoacoustic+calorimetric+study+of+horse+myoglobin.">A photoacoustic calorimetric study of horse myoglobin.</a> Bioph. Chem. 37 (1-3), 73-79 (1990).</li><li>Belogortseva, N., Rubio, M., Terrell, W., Miksovska, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+contribution+of+heme+propionate+groups+to+the+conformational+dynamics+associated+with+CO+photodissociation+from+horse+heart+myoglobin.">The contribution of heme propionate groups to the conformational dynamics associated with CO photodissociation from horse heart myoglobin.</a> J. Inorg. Biochem. 101 (7), 977-986 (2007).</li><li>Mik&#353;ovsk&#225;, J., Suquet, C., Satterlee, J. D., Larsen, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+Conformational+Changes+Coupled+to+Ligand+Photodissociation+from+the+Heme+Binding+Domain+of+FixL.">Characterization of Conformational Changes Coupled to Ligand Photodissociation from the Heme Binding Domain of FixL.</a> Biochemistry. 44 (30), 10028-10036 (2005).</li><li>Miksovska, J., Gennis, R. B., Larsen, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photothermal+studies+of+CO+photodissociation+from+mixed+valence+Escherichia+coli+cytochrome+bo3.">Photothermal studies of CO photodissociation from mixed valence Escherichia coli cytochrome bo3.</a> FEBS Lett. 579 (14), 3014-3018 (2005).</li><li>Losi, A., Michler, I., G&#228;rtner, W., Braslavsky, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-resolved+Thermodynamic+Changes+Photoinduced+in+5,12-trans-locked+Bacteriorhodopsin.+Evidence+that+Retinal+Isomerization+is+Required+for+Protein+Activation.">Time-resolved Thermodynamic Changes Photoinduced in 5,12-trans-locked Bacteriorhodopsin. Evidence that Retinal Isomerization is Required for Protein Activation.</a> Photochem. Photobiol. 72, 590-597 (2000).</li><li>Kondoh, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-Induced+Conformational+Changes+in+Full-Length+Arabidopsis+thaliana+Cryptochrome.">Light-Induced Conformational Changes in Full-Length Arabidopsis thaliana Cryptochrome.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 413 (1), 128-137 (2011).</li><li>Kaplan, J. H., Ellis-Davies, G. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photolabile+chelators+for+the+rapid+photorelease+of+divalent+cations.">Photolabile chelators for the rapid photorelease of divalent cations.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85 (17), 6571-6575 (1988).</li><li>Eisenberg, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Equation+for+the+Refractive+Index+of+Water.">Equation for the Refractive Index of Water.</a> J. Chem. Phys. 43 (11), 3887-3892 (1965).</li><li>Ellis-Davies, G. C., Kaplan, J. H., Barsotti, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+photolysis+of+caged+calcium:+rates+of+calcium+release+by+nitrophenyl-EGTA+and+DM-nitrophen.">Laser photolysis of caged calcium: rates of calcium release by nitrophenyl-EGTA and DM-nitrophen.</a> Biophys. J. 70, 1006-1016 (1996).</li><li>Miksovska, J., Larsen, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure-function+relationships+in+metalloproteins.">Structure-function relationships in metalloproteins.</a> Methods Enzymol. 360, 302-329 (2003).</li><li>Miksovska, J., Norstrom, J., Larsen, R. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermodynamic+profiles+for+CO+photodissociation+from+heme+model+compounds:+effect+of+proximal+ligands.">Thermodynamic profiles for CO photodissociation from heme model compounds: effect of proximal ligands.</a> Inorg. Chem. 44 (4), 1006-1014 (2005).</li><li>Dhulipala, G., Rubio, M., Michael, K., Miksovska, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermodynamic+profile+for+urea+photo-release+from+a+N-(2-nitrobenzyl)+caged+urea+compound.">Thermodynamic profile for urea photo-release from a N-(2-nitrobenzyl) caged urea compound.</a> Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 8, 1157-1163 (2009).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The physical principle behind photothermal methods is that a photo-excited molecule dissipates excess energy via vibrational relaxation to the ground state, resulting in thermal heating of the surrounding solvent1,12. For solvents such as water, this produces a rapid volume expansion (&#916;Vth). Excited-state molecules may also undergo photochemical processes that result in nonthermal volume changes (&#916;Vnonth) due to bond cleavage/formation and/or changes in molecular structure that ...

Photo-thermal methods such as photoacoustic calorimetry, photothermal beam deflection (PDB), and transient grating coupled with nanosecond laser excitation represent a powerful alternative to transient optical spectroscopies for time-resolved studies of short-lived intermediates1,2. In contrast to optical techniques, such as transient absorption and IR spectroscopy, that monitor the time profile of absorption changes in the chromophore surrounding; photothermal techniques detect the time-dependence of heat/volume changes and therefore are valuable tools for investigating time profiles of optically "silent" processes. So far, photoacoustic calorimetry and transient grating has been successfully applied to study conformational dynamics of photo-induced processes including diatomic ligand migration in globins3,4, ligand interactions with oxygen sensor protein FixL5, electron and proton transport in heme-copper oxidases6 and photosystem II as well as photo-isomerization in rhodopsin7 and conformational dynamics in cryptochrome8.
To expand the application of photothermal techniques to biological systems that are lacking an internal chromophore and/or fluorophore, the PBD technique was combined with the use of caged compound to photo-trigger an increase in ligand/substrate concentration within few microseconds or faster, depending on the caged compound. This approach allows monitoring of dynamics and energetics of structural changes associated with the ligand/substrate binding to proteins that are lacking an internal fluorophore or chromophore and on time-scale that are not accessible by commercial stop-flow instruments. Here an application of PBD to monitor the thermodynamics of the cage compound, Ca2+DM-nitrophen, photo-cleavage as well as the kinetics for Ca2+ association to the C-terminal domain of the neuronal calcium sensor Downstream Regulatory Element Antagonist Modulator (DREAM) is presented. The Ca2+ is photo-released from Ca2+DM-nitrophen within 10 &#956;sec and rebinds to an unphotolysed cage with a time constant of ~300 &#956;sec. On the other hand, in the presence of apoDREAM an additional kinetic occurring on the millisecond time-scale is observed and reflects the ligand binding to the protein. The application of PBD to probe conformational transitions in biological systems has been somehow limited due the instrumental difficulties; e.g. arduous alignment of the probe and pump beam to achieve a strong and reproducible PBD signal. However, a meticulous design of an instrumentation set-up, a precise control of the temperature, and a careful alignment of the probe and pump beam provide a consistent and robust PBD signal that allows monitoring of time-resolved volume and enthalpy changes on a broad time-scale from 10 &#181;sec to approximately 200 msec. In addition, modifications of the experimental procedure to assure the detection of sample and reference traces under identical temperature, buffer composition, optical cell orientation, laser power,&#160;etc. significantly reduces the experimental error in measured reaction volumes and enthalpies.

<table><tbody><tr><td>1-(4,5-Dimethoxy-2-Nitrophenyl)-1,2-Diaminoethane-&lt;em&gt;N,N,N&amp;#039;,N&amp;#039;&lt;/em&gt;-Tetraacetic Acid</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>D-6814</td><td>DM-nitrophen, cage calcium compound, keep stock solutions in dark to prevent photodissociation</td></tr><tr><td>4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)piperazine-1-ethanesulfonic acid, &lt;em&gt;N&lt;/em&gt;-(2-Hydroxyethyl)piperazine-&lt;em&gt;N&amp;prime;&lt;/em&gt;-(2-ethanesulfonic acid)</td><td>Sigma Adrich</td><td>0909C</td><td>HEPES buffer</td></tr><tr><td>Potassium ferricyanide (III)</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>702587</td><td>reference compound for PBD measurements</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium chromate</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>307831</td><td>reference compound for PBD measurements</td></tr><tr><td>He-Ne Laser Diode 5 mW 635 nm</td><td>Edmund Optics</td><td>54-179</td><td>use as a probe beam for PBD measurements</td></tr><tr><td>Oscilloscope,&amp;nbsp;</td><td>LeCroy</td><td>Wave Surfer 42Xs</td><td>400 MHz bandwith</td></tr><tr><td>Nd:YAG laser</td><td>Continuum</td><td>ML II</td><td>pump beam for PBD measurements</td></tr><tr><td>M&lt;sub&gt;355&lt;/sub&gt;; Nd:YAG laser mirror</td><td>Edmund Optics</td><td>47-324</td><td>laser mirror for 355 nm laser line</td></tr><tr><td>M&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and M&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; Laser diode mirror</td><td>Edmund Optics</td><td>43-532</td><td>visilbe laser flat mirror, wavelength range 300-700 nm</td></tr><tr><td>P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; Iris Diaphragm</td><td>Edmund Optics</td><td>62-649</td><td>pin hole to shape the probe and pum beams</td></tr><tr><td>L&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;; bi-convex lens</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td>LB1844</td><td>a lens to focus the probe beam at the detector, EFL 50 mm, wavelength range 350-2,000 nm</td></tr><tr><td>DM, dichroic mirror</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td>DMLP505</td><td>a longpass dichroic mirror with a cutoff wavelength of 505 nm</td></tr><tr><td>F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;; Edge filter</td><td>Andower</td><td>500FH90-25</td><td>a long pass filter with a cutoff wavelength of 500 nm</td></tr><tr><td>Temperature-controlled cuvette holder</td><td>Quantum Northwest</td><td>FLASH 300</td><td>&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

submillisecond conformational changes in proteins resolved by photothermal beam deflection

Photothermal beam deflection together with photo-acoustic calorimetry and thermal grating belongs to the family of photothermal methods that monitor the time-profile volume and enthalpy changes of light induced conformational changes in proteins on microsecond to millisecond time-scales that are not accessible using traditional stop-flow instruments. In addition, since overall changes in volume and/or enthalpy are probed, these techniques can be applied to proteins and other biomacromolecules that lack a fluorophore and or a chromophore label. To monitor dynamics and energetics of structural changes associated with Ca2+ binding to calcium transducers, such neuronal calcium sensors, a caged calcium compound, DM-nitrophen, is employed to photo-trigger a fast (&#964; &#60; 20 &#956;sec) increase in free calcium concentration and the associated volume and enthalpy changes are probed using photothermal beam deflection technique.

A representative example of PBD traces for Ca2+ photo-release from Ca2+DM-nitrophen is shown in Figure 3. The fast phase corresponds to the photo-cleavage of Ca2+DM-nitrophen and Ca2+ liberation, whereas the slow phase reflects Ca2+ binding to the nonphotolysed cage. The plot of the sample PBD amplitude for the fast and slow phase scaled to the amplitude of the reference compound as a function of the temperature depended factor [Cp&#961;/(...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Submillisecond Conformational Changes in Proteins Resolved by Photothermal Beam Deflection at JoVE.com

Submillisecond Conformational Changes in Proteins Resolved by Photothermal Beam Deflection | Chemistry | Video

Submillisecond Conformational Changes in Proteins Resolved by Photothermal Beam Deflection

Here we report an application of the photothermal beam deflection technique in combination with a caged calcium compound, DM-nitrophen, to monitor microsecond and millisecond dynamics and energetics of structural changes associated with the calcium association to a neuronal calcium sensor, Downstream Regulatory Element Antagonist Modulator.

Photothermal beam deflection together with photo-acoustic calorimetry and thermal grating belongs to the family of photothermal methods that monitor the ...

submillisecond-conformational-changes-proteins-resolved-photothermal

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

Education

JoVE Journal

JoVE Core

Chemistry

Biology

Physics

Fundamentals

Unit 1

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Macromolecules

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

8.9K Views.  Florida International University. Here we report an application of the photothermal beam deflection technique in combination with a caged calcium compound, DM-nitrophen, to monitor microsecond and millisecond dynamics and energetics of structural changes associated with the calcium association to a neuronal calcium sensor, Downstream Regulatory Element Antagonist Modulator. 

Video: Submillisecond Conformational Changes in Proteins Resolved by Photothermal Beam Deflection

Spatial Separation of Molecular Conformers and Clusters

Gas-phase molecular physics and physical chemistry experiments commonly use supersonic expansions through pulsed valves for the production of cold molecular beams. However, these beams often contain multiple conformers and clusters, even at low rotational temperatures. We present an experimental methodology that allows the spatial separation of these constituent parts of a molecular beam expansion. Using an electric deflector the beam is separated by its mass-to-dipole moment ratio, analogous to a bender or an electric sector mass spectrometer spatially dispersing charged molecules on the basis of their mass-to-charge ratio. This deflector exploits the Stark effect in an inhomogeneous electric field and allows the separation of individual species of polar neutral molecules and clusters. It furthermore allows the selection of the coldest part of a molecular beam, as low-energy rotational quantum states generally experience the largest deflection. Different structural isomers (conformers) of a species can be separated due to the different arrangement of functional groups, which leads to distinct dipole moments. These are exploited by the electrostatic deflector for the production of a conformationally pure sample from a molecular beam. Similarly, specific cluster stoichiometries can be selected, as the mass and dipole moment of a given cluster depends on the degree of solvation around the parent molecule. This allows experiments on specific cluster sizes and structures, enabling the systematic study of solvation of neutral molecules.

We present a technique that allows the spatial separation of different conformers or clusters present in a molecular beam. An electrostatic deflector is used to separate species by their mass-to-dipole moment ratio, leading to the production of gas-phase ensembles of a single conformer or cluster stoichiometry.

Gas-phase molecular physics and physical chemistry experiments commonly use supersonic expansions through pulsed valves for the production of cold ...

Engineering

Proton Transfer and Protein Conformation Dynamics in Photosensitive Proteins by Time-resolved Step-scan Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Monitoring the dynamics of protonation and protein backbone conformation changes during the function of a protein is an essential step towards understanding its mechanism. Protonation and conformational changes affect the vibration pattern of amino acid side chains and of the peptide bond, respectively, both of which can be probed by infrared (IR) difference spectroscopy. For proteins whose function can be repetitively and reproducibly triggered by light, it is possible to obtain infrared difference spectra with (sub)microsecond resolution over a broad spectral range using the step-scan Fourier transform infrared technique. With ~102-103 repetitions of the photoreaction, the minimum number to complete a scan at reasonable spectral resolution and bandwidth, the noise level in the absorption difference spectra can be as low as ~10-4, sufficient to follow the kinetics of protonation changes from a single amino acid. Lower noise levels can be accomplished by more data averaging and/or mathematical processing. The amount of protein required for optimal results is between 5-100 &#181;g, depending on the sampling technique used. Regarding additional requirements, the protein needs to be first concentrated in a low ionic strength buffer and then dried to form a film. The protein film is hydrated prior to the experiment, either with little droplets of water or under controlled atmospheric humidity. The attained hydration level (g of water / g of protein) is gauged from an IR absorption spectrum. To showcase the technique, we studied the photocycle of the light-driven proton-pump bacteriorhodopsin in its native purple membrane environment, and of the light-gated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 solubilized in detergent.

Key steps of protein function, in particular backbone conformational changes and proton transfer reactions, often take place in the microsecond to millisecond time scale. These dynamical processes can be studied by time-resolved step-scan Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, in particular for proteins whose function is triggered by light.

Monitoring the dynamics of protonation and protein backbone conformation changes during the function of a protein is an essential step towards ...

Direct Imaging of Laser-driven Ultrafast Molecular Rotation

We present a method for visualizing laser-induced, ultrafast molecular rotational wave packet dynamics. We have developed a new 2-dimensional Coulomb explosion imaging setup in which a hitherto-impractical camera angle is realized. In our imaging technique, diatomic molecules are irradiated with a circularly polarized strong laser pulse. The ejected atomic ions are accelerated perpendicularly to the laser propagation. The ions lying in the laser polarization plane are selected through the use of a mechanical slit and imaged with a high-throughput, 2-dimensional detector installed parallel to the polarization plane. Because a circularly polarized (isotropic) Coulomb exploding pulse is used, the observed angular distribution of the ejected ions directly corresponds to the squared rotational wave function at the time of the pulse irradiation. To create a real-time movie of molecular rotation, the present imaging technique is combined with a femtosecond pump-probe optical setup in which the pump pulses create unidirectionally rotating molecular ensembles. Due to the high image throughput of our detection system, the pump-probe experimental condition can be easily optimized by monitoring a real-time snapshot. As a result, the quality of the observed movie is sufficiently high for visualizing the detailed wave nature of motion. We also note that the present technique can be implemented in existing standard ion imaging setups, offering a new camera angle or viewpoint for the molecular systems without the need for extensive modification.

We present a protocol for creating a real-time movie of a molecular rotational wave packet using a high-resolution Coulomb explosion imaging setup.

We present a method for visualizing laser-induced, ultrafast molecular rotational wave packet dynamics. We have developed a new 2-dimensional Coulomb ...

Novel Techniques for Observing Structural Dynamics of Photoresponsive Liquid Crystals

We discuss in this article the experimental measurements of the molecules in liquid crystal (LC) phase using the time-resolved infrared (IR) vibrational spectroscopy and time-resolved electron diffraction. Liquid crystal phase is an important state of matter that exists between the solid and liquid phases and it is common in natural systems as well as in organic electronics. Liquid crystals are orientationally ordered but loosely packed, and therefore, the internal conformations and alignments of the molecular components of LCs can be modified by external stimuli. Although advanced time-resolved diffraction techniques have revealed picosecond-scale molecular dynamics of single crystals and polycrystals, direct observations of packing structures and ultrafast dynamics of soft materials have been hampered by blurry diffraction patterns. Here, we report time-resolved IR vibrational spectroscopy and electron diffractometry to acquire ultrafast snapshots of a columnar LC material bearing a photoactive core moiety. Differential-detection analyses of the combination of time-resolved IR vibrational spectroscopy and electron diffraction are powerful tools for characterizing structures and photoinduced dynamics of soft materials.

Here, we present the protocols of differential-detection analyses of time-resolved infrared vibrational spectroscopy and electron diffraction which enable observations of the deformations of local structures around photoexcited molecules in a columnar liquid crystal, giving an atomic perspective on the relationship between the structure and the dynamics of this photoactive material.

We discuss in this article the experimental measurements of the molecules in liquid crystal (LC) phase using the time-resolved infrared (IR) vibrational ...

Improving High Viscosity Extrusion of Microcrystals for Time-resolved Serial Femtosecond Crystallography at X-ray Lasers

High-viscosity micro-extrusion injectors have dramatically reduced sample consumption in serial femtosecond crystallographic experiments (SFX) at X-ray free electron lasers (XFELs). A series of experiments using the light-driven proton pump bacteriorhodopsin have further established these injectors as a preferred option to deliver crystals for time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography (TR-SFX) to resolve structural changes of proteins after photoactivation. To obtain multiple structural snapshots of high quality, it is essential to collect large amounts of data and ensure clearance of crystals between every pump laser pulse. Here, we describe in detail how we optimized the extrusion of bacteriorhodopsin microcrystals for our recent TR-SFX experiments at the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS). The goal of the method is to optimize extrusion for a stable and continuous flow while maintaining a high density of crystals to increase the rate at which data can be collected in a TR-SFX experiment. We achieve this goal by preparing lipidic cubic phase with a homogenous distribution of crystals using a novel three-way syringe coupling device followed by adjusting the sample composition based on measurements of the extrusion stability taken with a high-speed camera setup. The methodology can be adapted to optimize the flow of other microcrystals. The setup will be available for users of the new Swiss Free Electron Laser facility.

The success of a time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography experiment is dependent on efficient sample delivery. Here, we describe protocols to optimize the extrusion of bacteriorhodopsin microcrystals from a high viscosity micro-extrusion injector. The methodology relies on sample homogenization with a novel three-way coupler and visualization with a high-speed camera.

High-viscosity micro-extrusion injectors have dramatically reduced sample consumption in serial femtosecond crystallographic experiments (SFX) at X-ray ...

Fixed Target Serial Data Collection at Diamond Light Source

Serial data collection is a relatively new technique for synchrotron users. A user manual for fixed target data collection at I24, Diamond Light Source is presented with detailed step-by-step instructions, figures, and videos for smooth data collection.

We present a comprehensive guide to fixed target sample preparation, data collection, and data processing for serial synchrotron crystallography at Diamond beamline I24.

Serial data collection is a relatively new technique for synchrotron users. A user manual for fixed target data collection at I24, Diamond Light Source is ...

Biochemistry

Utilizing Time-Resolved Protein-Induced Fluorescence Enhancement to Identify Stable Local Conformations One &#945;-Synuclein Monomer at a Time

Using spectroscopic rulers to track multiple conformations of single biomolecules and their dynamics have revolutionized the understanding of structural dynamics and its contributions to biology. While the FRET-based ruler reports on inter-dye distances in the 3-10 nm range, other spectroscopic techniques, such as protein-induced fluorescence enhancement (PIFE), report on the proximity between a dye and a protein surface in the shorter 0-3 nm range. Regardless of the method of choice, its use in measuring freely-diffusing biomolecules one at a time retrieves histograms of the experimental parameter yielding separate centrally-distributed sub-populations of biomolecules, where each sub-population represents either a single conformation that stayed unchanged within milliseconds, or multiple conformations that interconvert much faster than milliseconds, and hence an averaged-out sub-population. In single-molecule FRET, where the reported parameter in histograms is the inter-dye FRET efficiency, an intrinsically disordered protein, such as the &#945;-Synuclein monomer in buffer, was previously reported as exhibiting a single averaged-out sub-population of multiple conformations interconverting rapidly. While these past findings depend on the 3-10 nm range of the FRET-based ruler, we sought to put this protein to the test using single-molecule PIFE, where we track the fluorescence lifetime of site-specific sCy3-labeled &#945;-Synuclein proteins one at a time. Interestingly, using this shorter range spectroscopic proximity sensor, sCy3-labeled &#945;-Synuclein exhibits several lifetime sub-populations with distinctly different mean lifetimes that interconvert in 10-100 ms. These results show that while &#945;-Synuclein might be disordered globally, it nonetheless attains stable local structures. In summary, in this work we highlight the advantage of using different spectroscopic proximity sensors that track local or global structural changes one biomolecule at a time.

Time-resolved single-molecule protein-induced fluorescence enhancement is a useful fluorescence spectroscopic proximity sensor sensitive to local structural changes in proteins. Here we show it can be used to uncover stable local conformations in &#945;-Synuclein, which is otherwise known as globularly unstructured and unstable when measured using the longer range FRET ruler.

Using spectroscopic rulers to track multiple conformations of single biomolecules and their dynamics have revolutionized the understanding of structural ...

High-Resolution Neutron Spectroscopy to Study Picosecond-Nanosecond Dynamics of Proteins and Hydration Water

Neutron scattering offers the possibility to probe the dynamics within samples for a wide range of energies in a nondestructive manner and without labeling other than deuterium. In particular, neutron backscattering spectroscopy records the scattering signals at multiple scattering angles simultaneously and is well suited to study the dynamics of biological systems on the ps-ns timescale. By employing D2O-and possibly deuterated buffer components-the method allows monitoring of both center-of-mass diffusion and backbone and side-chain motions (internal dynamics) of proteins in liquid state.
Additionally, hydration water dynamics can be studied by employing powders of perdeuterated proteins hydrated with H2O. This paper presents the workflow employed on the instrument IN16B at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) to investigate protein and hydration water dynamics. The preparation of solution samples and hydrated protein powder samples using vapor exchange is explained. The data analysis procedure for both protein and hydration water dynamics is described for different types of datasets (quasielastic spectra or fixed-window scans) that can be obtained on a neutron backscattering spectrometer.
The method is illustrated with two studies involving amyloid proteins. The aggregation of lysozyme into &#181;m sized spherical aggregates-denoted particulates-is shown to occur in a one-step process on the space and time range probed on IN16B, while the internal dynamics remains unchanged. Further, the dynamics of hydration water of tau was studied on hydrated powders of perdeuterated protein. It is shown that translational motions of water are activated upon the formation of amyloid fibers. Finally, critical steps in the protocol are discussed as to how neutron scattering is positioned regarding the study of dynamics with respect to other experimental biophysical methods.

Neutron backscattering spectroscopy offers a nondestructive and label-free access to the ps-ns dynamics of proteins and their hydration water. The workflow is presented with two studies on amyloid proteins: on the time-resolved dynamics of lysozyme during aggregation and on the hydration water dynamics of tau upon fiber formation.

Neutron scattering offers the possibility to probe the dynamics within samples for a wide range of energies in a nondestructive manner and without ...

Monitoring Conformational Dynamics of Single Unmodified Proteins using Plasmonic Nanotweezers

Current single-molecule techniques to characterize proteins typically require labels, tethers, or the use of non-native solution conditions. Such changes can alter protein biophysics and reduce the usefulness of the data acquired. Plasmonic nanotweezers is a technique that uses localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) on gold nanostructures to enhance the electric field within a confined hotspot region. This field enhancement allows for the use of low laser powers to trap single nanoparticles far smaller than conventional optical tweezers, down to only a few nanometers in diameter, such as single proteins. Trapping of single protein molecules within the hotspot region induces a shift in the local refractive index (nprotein &#62; nwater), altering light scattering as a product of the molecule&#39;s polarisability, which is affected by its volume, shape anisotropy, and refractive index. An avalanche photodiode (APD) collects the subsequent changes in light scattering. These alterations can then be analyzed to determine changes in the trapped molecule, including its size, global conformation, and dynamics of conformational change over time. The incorporation of microfluidics within the system allows for controlled environmental changes and real-time monitoring of their subsequent effects on the molecule. In this protocol, we demonstrate the steps to trap single protein molecules, alter their environmental solution conditions, and monitor their corresponding conformational changes using a plasmonic nanotweezers system.

Plasmonic nanotweezers use localized surface plasmon resonance in gold nanostructures to trap single nanoparticles, including proteins, within a nanometer-scale optical field. Changes in the scattered signal reveal protein presence and conformational dynamics, enabling monitoring without fluorophore modifications or surface tethering.

Current single-molecule techniques to characterize proteins typically require labels, tethers, or the use of non-native solution conditions. Such changes ...

Characterizing Single-Molecule Conformational Changes Under Shear Flow with Fluorescence Microscopy

Single-molecule behavior under mechanical perturbation has been characterized widely to understand many biological processes. However, methods such as atomic force microscopy have limited temporal resolution, while F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) only allow conformations to be inferred. Fluorescence microscopy, on the other hand, allows real-time in situ visualization of single molecules in various flow conditions. Our protocol describes the steps to capture conformational changes of single biomolecules under different shear flow environments using fluorescence microscopy. The shear flow is created inside microfluidic channels and controlled by a syringe pump. As demonstrations of the method, von Willebrand factor (VWF) and lambda DNA are labeled with biotin and fluorophore and then immobilized on the channel surface. Their conformations are continuously monitored under variable shear flow using total internal reflection (TIRF) and confocal fluorescence microscopy. The reversible unraveling dynamics of VWF are useful for understanding how its function is regulated in human blood, while the conformation of lambda DNA offers insights into the biophysics of macromolecules. The protocol can also be widely applied to study the behavior of polymers, especially biopolymers, in varying flow conditions and to investigate the rheology of complex fluids.

We present a protocol for immobilizing single macromolecules in microfluidic devices and quantifying changes in their conformations under shear flow. This protocol is useful for characterizing the biomechanical and functional properties of biomolecules such as proteins and DNA in a flow environment.

Single-molecule behavior under mechanical perturbation has been characterized widely to understand many biological processes. However, methods such as ...