This work was supported by the Czech Science Foundation (18-10035S), the National Sustainability Program I (LO1419), institutional support (RVO68378050), the European Regional Development Fund (CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001775) and the Grant Agency of Charles University (GAUK 134516). We further acknowledge the Light Microscopy Core Facility, IMG CAS, Prague, Czech Republic (supported by grants (Czech-Bioimaging - LM2015062).

1. Preparation of snRNAs for Microinjection
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a DNA template containing the full-length or truncated/mutated version of snRNA by PCR using a following PCR setup: 98 &#176;C for 60 s, 98 &#176;C for 15 s, 68 &#176;C for 30 s, 72 &#176;C for 1 min, 98 &#176;C for 15 s for 35x, and 72 &#176;C for 5 min.</li>
	<li>The forward primer must contain a promoter sequence for in vitro transcription just upstream of the first transcribed nucleotide. Amplify U2 snRNA sequence using the forward primer containing the T7 promoter and the reverse primer, which ends with the last transcribed nucleotide (see Table of Materials for details).</li>
	<li>Synthesize snRNA using a kit for short RNA synthesis (see&#160;Table of Materials&#160;for details) containing T7 RNA polymerase. Add 1 mM ATP, 1 mM CTP, 1 mM GTP, 0.8 mM UTP, 0.2 mM UTP-Alexa488, 1.8 mM trimethylguanosine cap analogue (m32,2,7G(5&#8217;)ppp(5&#8217;)G), 1 &#956;L of an RNA inhibitor and 500-700 ng of the DNA template to the reaction mixture and incubate at 37 &#730;C overnight.</li>
	<li>Add 1 &#181;L (2U) of DNase into the reaction and incubate for additional 15 min at 37 &#730;C.</li>
	<li>Isolate snRNA by acidic phenol/chloroform extraction. Remove the top water phase and add 1/10 of the original volume of 3 M sodium acetate (pH = 5.2), 3 &#181;L of glycogen for better pellet visualization and 2.5 volumes of 100% ethanol. Incubate for 1 h at -80 &#730;C, centrifuge for 10 min at 14,000 x g and 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Wash the pellet with 70% ethanol and dissolve in 12 &#181;L of nuclease-free water. The usual RNA yield was around 600 ng/&#956;L. Store at -80 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Monitor the integrity of in vitro transcribed snRNAs by agarose gel electrophoreses.</li>
	<li>Before microinjection, dilute RNA to the final concentration 200 ng/&#956;L in water containing 10 &#181;g/&#181;L dextran-TRITC 70 kDa.</li>
</ol>
2. Cells
<ol>
	<li>Before the use, treat the coverslips with 1 M HCl for 1 h, wash thoroughly in distilled water and store in 100% ethanol. Acidic treatment promotes cells adhesion to prevent cell peeling during or after injection. For easier identification of injected cells, use a coverslip with a grid.</li>
	<li>Seed HeLa or other adherent cells 1 day before microinjection on 12 mm coverslips (no. 1 or no. 1.5) to reach 50% confluency at the time of microinjection.</li>
</ol>
3. Injection
NOTE: HeLa cells were microinjected in the Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (D-MEM, 4.5 g/L D-glucose containing phenol red and antibiotics). Injection was carried out using an injector and a micromanipulator equipped with the sterile needle (see Table of Materials for details). The whole microscopic/micromanipulator system was pre-heated to 37 &#176;C for at least 4 h to prevent fluctuation of individual parts of the microscope and the microinjector.
<ol>
	<li>Put the Petri dish (30 mm) containing 2 mL of culture media with the coverslip in the middle into the holder of the microscope. Load 3 &#181;L of snRNA mixture into the needle using a microloader. Install the needle into the holder of the microinjector in 45&#176; with respect to the surface of the Petri dish.</li>
	<li>To find the needle, use a 10x long distance objective. First, set the speed COARSE on the injector and lower the needle until it touches the culture medium. Using the microscope binoculars, find the bright spot, which is the place where the needle touches the culture medium.</li>
	<li>Change the speed to FINE and further lower the needle while looking into the microscope until the tip of the needle is observed. Move the needle in the middle of visual field and switch to a 40x long distance objective.</li>
	<li>After changing the objective, select the cell and move the needle above this cell. Set the pressures and time for the cell contact (see Tips and troubleshooting in discussion).</li>
	<li>Move the needle down into the cell and then set the lower limit on the micromanipulator. Be careful not to move the needle below the cell.</li>
	<li>After setting the lower limit, move the needle back above the cell and press the injection button on the joystick of the injector. The needle moves automatically inside the cell to the place where the limit is set and injects the RNA mixture.</li>
	<li>To finish, push the button MENU on the injector and remove the needle from the holder. Then disconnect the tube from the injector before switching off the injector and the micromanipulator.</li>
</ol>
4. Cell Fixation and Staining
<ol>
	<li>After the microinjection, return the cells into a CO2 incubator and incubate at 37 &#176;C for 1 h.</li>
	<li>After the incubation, rinse the cells three times with phosphate buffered saline solution (PBS) at room temperature, fix for 20 min with 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 M PIPES pH 6.9, and wash three times with room temperature PBS. If only snRNA localization is analyzed, briefly rinse the cells in water and mount in a mounting medium with DAPI.</li>
	<li>In case of additional protein localization, permeabilize the cells with 0.5% Triton-X100 in PBS for 5 min at room temperature. After three rinses with PBS, incubate the cells with primary and secondary antibodies and after final washes in PBS and brief rinse in water, mount in a mounting medium with DAPI.</li>
</ol>
5. Microscopy
<ol>
	<li>If not imaged immediately after mounting, store the slides at 4 &#176;C until imaging.</li>
	<li>Acquire images using a high-end fluorescence microscopic system equipped with an immersion objective (60X or 100x/1.4NA).</li>
	<li>Once microinjected cells are identified, collect a stack of 20 z-sections with 200 nm z steps per sample and subject to mathematical deconvolution. Maximal projections or individual z stacks were then presented.</li>
	<li>To quantify the fluorescent signal, draw Region of Interest (ROI) around a Cajal body identified by coilin immunostaining. Measure the intensity of the snRNA signal in the coilin-defined ROI. Next determine the intensity of snRNA fluorescence in ROI randomly placed in the nucleoplasm and calculate the ratio of RNA signal in the Cajal body and nucleoplasm.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Ishikawa, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+truncated+forms+of+U1+snRNA+reveals+a+novel+RNA+degradation+pathway+during+snRNP+biogenesis.">Identification of truncated forms of U1 snRNA reveals a novel RNA degradation pathway during snRNP biogenesis.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 42 (4), 2708-2724 (2014).</li><li>Stanek, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cajal+bodies+and+snRNPs+-+friends+with+benefits.">Cajal bodies and snRNPs - friends with benefits.</a> RNA Biology. 14 (6), 671-679 (2017).</li><li>Stanek, D., Fox, A. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+bodies:+news+insights+into+structure+and+function.">Nuclear bodies: news insights into structure and function.</a> Curentr Opinion in Cell Biology. 46, 94-101 (2017).</li><li>Novotny, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SART3-Dependent+Accumulation+of+Incomplete+Spliceosomal+snRNPs+in+Cajal+Bodies.">SART3-Dependent Accumulation of Incomplete Spliceosomal snRNPs in Cajal Bodies.</a> Cell Reports. 10, 429-440 (2015).</li><li>Roithova, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Sm-core+mediates+the+retention+of+partially-assembled+spliceosomal+snRNPs+in+Cajal+bodies+until+their+full+maturation.">The Sm-core mediates the retention of partially-assembled spliceosomal snRNPs in Cajal bodies until their full maturation.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 46 (7), 3774-3790 (2018).</li><li>Fischer, U., Sumpter, V., Sekine, M., Satoh, T., Luhrmann, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nucleo-cytoplasmic+transport+of+U+snRNPs:+definition+of+a+nuclear+location+signal+in+the+Sm+core+domain+that+binds+a+transport+receptor+independently+of+the+m3G+cap.">Nucleo-cytoplasmic transport of U snRNPs: definition of a nuclear location signal in the Sm core domain that binds a transport receptor independently of the m3G cap.</a> EMBO Journal. 12 (2), 573-583 (1993).</li><li>Shukla, S., Parker, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quality+control+of+assembly-defective+U1+snRNAs+by+decapping+and+5&#39;-to-3&#39;+exonucleolytic+digestion.">Quality control of assembly-defective U1 snRNAs by decapping and 5&#39;-to-3&#39; exonucleolytic digestion.</a> Proceeding of the National Academy of U S A. 111 (32), E3277-E3286 (2014).</li><li>Weil, T. T., Parton, R. M., Davis, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Making+the+message+clear:+visualizing+mRNA+localization.">Making the message clear: visualizing mRNA localization.</a> Trends in Cell Biology. 20 (7), 380-390 (2010).</li><li>Klingauf, M., Stanek, D., Neugebauer, K. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhancement+of+U4/U6+small+nuclear+ribonucleoprotein+particle+association+in+Cajal+bodies+predicted+by+mathematical+modeling.">Enhancement of U4/U6 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particle association in Cajal bodies predicted by mathematical modeling.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 17 (12), 4972-4981 (2006).</li><li>Mhlanga, M. M., Vargas, D. Y., Fung, C. W., Kramer, F. R., Tyagi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=tRNA-linked+molecular+beacons+for+imaging+mRNAs+in+the+cytoplasm+of+living+cells.">tRNA-linked molecular beacons for imaging mRNAs in the cytoplasm of living cells.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 33 (6), 1902-1912 (2005).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

We employed microinjection of fluorescently labelled snRNAs to determine sequences important for snRNA localization into nuclear Cajal bodies. Due to rapid and rather simple preparation of labelled RNAs (preparation of DNA template by PCR followed by in vitro transcription) the method offers effective analysis of how various sequences contribute to RNA localization. In relatively short time, we were able to analyze ten different deletions or substitutions of the U2 snRNA (reference5 and data not s...

RNA splicing is one of the crucial steps in gene expression, which is catalyzed by a large ribonucleoprotein complex called the spliceosome. In total, more than 150 proteins and 5 small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) are integrated into the spliceosome at different stages of the splicing pathway. U1, U2, U4, U5 and U6 snRNAs are participating in splicing of major GU-AG introns. These snRNAs join the spliceosome as pre-formed small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) that contain snRNA, seven Sm proteins associated with snRNA (or Like-Sm proteins, which associate with the U6 snRNA) and 1-12 proteins specific for each snRNP.
Assembly of snRNPs involves cytoplasmic and nuclear stages. Newly transcribed snRNA is exported to the cytoplasm where it acquires a ring assembled from seven Sm proteins. The Sm ring subsequently serves as a signal for snRNA re-import back to the nucleus. Defective snRNAs that fail to associate with Sm proteins are retained in the cytoplasm1. Newly imported snRNPs first appear in the Cajal body where they meet snRNP-specific proteins and finish their maturation (reviewed in reference2,3). We recently showed that inhibition of final maturation steps results in sequestration of immature snRNPs in Cajal bodies4,5. We proposed a model where the final snRNP maturation is under quality control that monitors addition of snRNP-specific proteins and the formation of active snRNPs. However, molecular details of how cells distinguish between correctly assembled mature and aberrant immature particles remain elusive.
To determine snRNA sequences that are essential for targeting and accumulation of snRNAs in nuclear Cajal bodies, we decided to employ microinjection of fluorescently labelled snRNAs. Microinjection was a method of choice because: 1) it does not require an additional sequence tag to distinguish synthetic snRNAs form their endogenous counterparts which is especially important for short RNAs with little space for insertion of extra tag sequence; 2) it allows analysis of sequences that are important for biogenesis. For example, the Sm sequence is essential for Sm ring assembly and re-import into the nucleus6. When snRNAs are expressed in the cell, snRNAs lacking the Sm sequence are degraded in the cytoplasm and do not reach the nucleus and Cajal bodies7. However, snRNAs without the Sm sequence can be directly microinjected into the nucleus and thus a potential role of the Sm sequence in Cajal body localization assayed.
Here, we describe in detail a microinjection method that we applied to determine snRNA sequences necessary to target snRNAs into the Cajal body5. We showed that Sm and SMN binding sites are together necessary and sufficient to localize not only snRNAs but various short non-coding RNAs into the Cajal body. Based on microinjection as well as other evidence, we proposed that the Sm ring assembled on the Sm binding site is the Cajal body localization signal.

<table><tbody><tr><td>ChromaTide Alexa fluor 488-5-UTP</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td>C11403</td><td>Stock concentration 1 mM</td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Modified Eagle Medium - high glucose</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>D5796</td><td>Containing 4.5 g&amp;frasl;L D-glucose, Phenol red and antibiotics</td></tr><tr><td>FemtoJet express Injector</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td>5247000013</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Femtotips II</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td>930000043</td><td>Microinjection needle of 0.5 &amp;micro;m inner and 0.7 &amp;micro;m outer diameter</td></tr><tr><td>Fluoromont G with DAPI</td><td>SouthernBiotech</td><td>0100-20</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glycogen</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td>AM9510</td><td>Stock concentration 5 mg/mL</td></tr><tr><td>Gridded Glass Coverslips</td><td>Ibidi</td><td>10817</td><td>Coverslips with a grid, no direct experience with them</td></tr><tr><td>InjectMan NI 2 Micromanipulator</td><td>Eppendorf</td><td>5181000017</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>m3-2,2,7G(5&#039;)ppp(5&#039;)G trimethyled cap analogue</td><td>Jena Bioscience</td><td>NU-853-1</td><td>Stock concentration 40 mM</td></tr><tr><td>MEGAshortscript T7 Transcription Kit</td><td>ThermoFisher</td><td>AM1354</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope Cover Glasses 12 mm, No. 1</td><td>Paul Marienfeld GmbH</td><td>111520</td><td>For routine work</td></tr><tr><td>Microscope Cover Glasses 12 mm, No. 1.5</td><td>Paul Marienfeld GmbH</td><td>117520</td><td>For high resolution images</td></tr><tr><td>Microscope DeltaVision</td><td>GE Healthcare</td><td></td><td>For image acquisition</td></tr><tr><td>Microscope DMI6000</td><td>Leica</td><td></td><td>For microinjection</td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde 32% solution EM grade</td><td>EMS</td><td>15714</td><td>Dissolved in PIPES to the final concentration 4%</td></tr><tr><td>Phenol:Chloroform 5:1</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P1944</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Primers for U2 amplification: Forward: 5&amp;rsquo;-TAATACGACT&lt;br /&gt;CACTATAGGGATCGCTTCT&lt;br /&gt;CGGCCTTTTGG,&lt;br/&gt; Reverse: 5&amp;acute; TGGTG&lt;br /&gt;CACCGTTCCTGGAGGT</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td></td><td>T7 rpromoter sequence in italics</td></tr><tr><td>Phusion High Fidelity DNA polymerase</td><td>BioLab</td><td>M0530L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RNasin Plus</td><td>Promega</td><td>N2615</td><td>Stock concentration 40 mM</td></tr><tr><td>Tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate Dextran 65-85 kDa</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>T1162</td><td>Dissolved in water, stock concentration 1 mg/mL</td></tr><tr><td>Triton-X100</td><td>Serva</td><td>37240</td><td>Dissolved in water, stock concentration 10%</td></tr></tbody></table>

analysis of spliceosomal snrna localization in human hela cells using microinjection

Biogenesis of spliceosomal snRNAs is a complex process involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases and the last step occurs in a nuclear compartment called the Cajal body. However, sequences that direct snRNA localization into this subnuclear structure have not been known until recently. To determine sequences important for accumulation of snRNAs in Cajal bodies, we employed microinjection of fluorescently labelled snRNAs followed by their localization inside cells. First, we prepared snRNA deletion mutants, synthesized DNA templates for in vitro transcription and transcribed snRNAs in the presence of UTP coupled with Alexa488. Labelled snRNAs were mixed with 70 kDa-Dextran conjugated with TRITC, and microinjected to the nucleus or the cytoplasm of human HeLa cells. Cells were incubated for 1 h and fixed and the Cajal body marker coilin was visualized by indirect immunofluorescence, while snRNAs and dextran, which serves as a marker of nuclear or cytoplasmic injection, were observed directly using a fluorescence microscope. This method allows for efficient and rapid testing of how various sequences influence RNA localization inside cells. Here, we show the importance of the Sm-binding sequence for efficient localization of snRNAs into the Cajal body.

To monitor snRNA localization and the role of the Sm binding site in Cajal body targeting, we prepared a DNA template containing the T7 promoter and either the full-length U2 snRNA or U2 snRNA lacking the seven nucleotides (AUUUUUG) forming the Sm binding site. snRNAs were in vitro transcribed, isolated and mixed with TRITC-coupled dextran-70kDa. We microinjected the mixture containing in vitro transcribed snRNA into the nucleus or the cytoplasm of HeLa cells.
It has been previously shown that...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analysis of Spliceosomal snRNA Localization in Human Hela Cells Using Microinjection at JoVE.com

Analysis of Spliceosomal snRNA Localization in Human Hela Cells Using Microinjection

Biogenesis of spliceosomal snRNAs is a complex process involving various cellular compartments. Here, we employed microinjection of fluorescently labelled snRNAs in order to monitor their transport inside the cell.

Biogenesis of spliceosomal snRNAs is a complex process involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases and the last step occurs in a nuclear compartment ...

analysis-spliceosomal-snrna-localization-human-hela-cells-using

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

6.0K Views.  Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences. Biogenesis of spliceosomal snRNAs is a complex process involving various cellular compartments. Here, we employed microinjection of fluorescently labelled snRNAs in order to monitor their transport inside the cell.

Video: Analysis of Spliceosomal snRNA Localization in Human Hela Cells Using Microinjection

Quantitative Analysis of Alternative Pre-mRNA Splicing in Mouse Brain Sections Using RNA In Situ Hybridization Assay

Alternative splicing (AS) occurs in more than 90% of human genes. The expression pattern of an alternatively spliced exon is often regulated in a cell type-specific fashion. AS expression patterns are typically analyzed by RT-PCR and RNA-seq using RNA samples isolated from a population of cells. In situ examination of AS expression patterns for a particular biological structure can be carried out by RNA in situ hybridization (ISH) using exon-specific probes. However, this particular use of ISH has been limited because alternative exons are generally too short to design exon-specific probes. In this report, the use of BaseScope, a recently developed technology that employs short antisense oligonucleotides in RNA ISH, is described to analyze AS expression patterns in mouse brain sections. Exon 23a of neurofibromatosis type 1 (Nf1) is used as an example to illustrate that short exon-exon junction probes exhibit robust hybridization signals with high specificity in RNA ISH analysis on mouse brain sections. More importantly, signals detected with exon inclusion- and skipping-specific probes can be used to reliably calculate the percent spliced in values of Nf1 exon 23a expression in different anatomical areas of a mouse brain. The experimental protocol and calculation method for AS analysis are presented. The results indicate that BaseScope provides a powerful new tool to assess AS expression patterns in situ.

Quantitative Analysis of Alternative Pre-mRNA Splicing in Mouse Brain Sections Using RNA In Situ Hybridization Assay

An in situ hybridization (ISH) protocol that uses short antisense oligonucleotides to detect alternative pre-mRNA splicing patterns in mouse brain sections is described.

Alternative splicing (AS) occurs in more than 90% of human genes. The expression pattern of an alternatively spliced exon is often regulated in a cell ...

Genetics

Using the E1A Minigene Tool to Study mRNA Splicing Changes

mRNA processing involves multiple simultaneous steps to prepare mRNA for translation, such as 5&#180;capping, poly-A addition and splicing. Besides constitutive splicing, alternative mRNA splicing allows the expression of multifunctional proteins from one gene. As interactome studies are generally the first analysis for new or unknown proteins, the association of the bait protein with splicing factors is an indication that it can participate in mRNA splicing process, but to determine in what context or what genes are regulated is an empirical process. A good starting point to evaluate this function is using the classical minigene tool. Here we present the adenoviral E1A minigene usage for evaluating the alternative splicing changes after different cellular stress stimuli. We evaluated the splicing of E1A minigene in HEK293 stably overexpressing Nek4 protein after different stressing treatments. The protocol includes E1A minigene transfection, cell treatment, RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis, followed by PCR and gel analysis and quantification of the E1A spliced variants. The use of this simple and well-established method combined with specific treatments is a reliable starting point to shed light on cellular processes or what genes can be regulated by mRNA splicing.

This protocol presents a rapid and useful tool for evaluating the role of a protein with uncharacterized function in alternative splicing regulation after chemotherapeutic treatment.

mRNA processing involves multiple simultaneous steps to prepare mRNA for translation, such as 5&#180;capping, poly-A addition and splicing. Besides ...

Cancer Research

A Rapid High-throughput Method for Mapping Ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) on Human pre-mRNA

Sequencing RNAs that co-immunoprecipitate (co-IP) with RNA binding proteins has increased our understanding of splicing by demonstrating that binding location often influences function of a splicing factor.  However, as with any sampling strategy the chance of identifying an RNA bound to a splicing factor is proportional to its cellular abundance.  We have developed a novel in vitro approach for surveying binding specificity on otherwise transient pre-mRNA. This approach utilizes a specifically designed oligonucleotide pool that tiles across introns, exons, splice junctions, or other pre-mRNA.  The pool is subjected to some kind of molecular selection. Here, we demonstrate the method by separating the oligonucleotide into a bound and unbound fraction and utilize a two color array strategy to record the enrichment of each oligonucleotide in the bound fraction. The array data generates high-resolution maps with the ability to identify sequence-specific and structural determinates of ribonucleoprotein (RNP) binding on pre-mRNA.  A unique advantage to this method is its ability to avoid the sampling bias towards mRNA associated with current IP and SELEX techniques, as the pool is specifically designed and synthesized from pre-mRNA sequence. The flexibility of the oligonucleotide pool is another advantage since the experimenter chooses which regions to study and tile across, tailoring the pool to their individual needs.  Using this technique, one can assay the effects of polymorphisms or mutations on binding on a large scale or clone the library into a functional splicing reporter and identify oligonucleotides that are enriched in the included fraction.  This novel in vitro high-resolution mapping scheme provides a unique way to study RNP interactions with transient pre-mRNA species, whose low abundance makes them difficult to study with current in vivo techniques.  



A Rapid High-throughput Method for Mapping Ribonucleoproteins RNPs on Human pre-mRNA

Due to the transient nature of pre-mRNA, it can be difficult to isolate and study in vivo. Here, we present a novel in vitro approach to investigate RNA-protein interactions using a synthetic oligo pool that tiles across selected regions of pre-mRNA.

Sequencing RNAs that co-immunoprecipitate (co-IP) with RNA binding proteins has increased our understanding of splicing by demonstrating that binding ...

Biology

FISH for Long Non-Coding RNA Localization in Human Osteosarcoma Cells

RNA Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization for Long Non-Coding RNA Localization in Human Osteosarcoma Cells

The important roles of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in cancer have been studied, such as regulating the proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), migration, infiltration, and autophagy of cancer cells. Localization detection of lncRNAs in cells can provide insight into their functions. By designing the lncRNA-specific antisense chain sequence followed by labeling with fluorescent dyes, RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) can be applied to detect the cellular localization of lncRNAs. Together with the development of microscopy, the RNA FISH techniques now even allow for visualization of the poorly expressed lncRNAs. This method can not only detect the localization of lncRNAs alone, but also detect the colocalization of other RNAs, DNA, or proteins by using double-color or multicolor immunofluorescence. Here, we have included the detailed experimental operation procedure and precautions of RNA FISH by using lncRNA small nucleolar RNA host gene 6 (SNHG6) in human osteosarcoma cells (143B) as an example, to provide a reference for researchers who want to perform RNA FISH experiments, especially lncRNA FISH.

Author Spotlight: RNA FISH for Locating lncRNA-SNHG6 in Osteosarcoma Cells 

The present protocol describes a method of RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization to localize the lncRNAs in human osteosarcoma cells.

The important roles of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in cancer have been studied, such as regulating the proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition ...

A Reporter Based Cellular Assay for Monitoring Splicing Efficiency

During gene expression, the vital step of pre-mRNA splicing involves accurate recognition of splice sites and efficient assembly of spliceosomal complexes to join exons and remove introns prior to cytoplasmic export of the mature mRNA. Splicing efficiency can be altered by the presence of mutations at splice sites, the influence of trans-acting splicing factors, or the activity of therapeutics. Here, we describe the protocol for a cellular assay that can be applied for monitoring the splicing efficiency of any given exon. The assay uses an adaptable plasmid encoded 3-exon/2-intron minigene reporter, which can be expressed in mammalian cells by transient transfection. Post-transfection, total cellular RNA is isolated, and the efficiency of exon splicing in the reporter mRNA is determined by either primer extension or semi-quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). We describe how the impact of disease associated 5&#8242; splice-site mutations can be determined by introducing them in the reporter; and how the suppression of these mutations can be achieved by co-transfection with U1 small nuclear RNA (snRNA) construct carrying compensatory mutations in its 5&#8242; region that basepairs with the 5&#8242;-splice sites at exon-intron junctions in pre-mRNAs. Thus, the reporter can be used for the design of therapeutic U1 particles to improve recognition of mutant 5&#8242; splice-sites. Insertion of cis-acting&#160;regulatory sites, such as splicing enhancer or silencer sequences, into the reporter can also be used to examine the role of U1 snRNP in regulation mediated by a specific alternative splicing factor. Finally, reporter expressing cells can be incubated with small molecules to determine the effect of potential therapeutics on constitutive pre-mRNA splicing or on exons carrying mutant 5&#8242; splice sites. Overall, the reporter assay can be applied to monitor splicing efficiency in a variety of conditions to study fundamental splicing mechanisms and splicing-associated diseases.

This protocol describes a minigene reporter assay to monitor the impact of 5&#180;-splice site mutations on splicing and develops suppressor U1 snRNA for the rescue of mutation-induced splicing inhibition. The reporter and suppressor U1 snRNA constructs are expressed in HeLa cells, and splicing is analyzed by primer extension or RT-PCR.

During gene expression, the vital step of pre-mRNA splicing involves accurate recognition of splice sites and efficient assembly of spliceosomal complexes ...

Biochemistry

Detection of Axonally Localized mRNAs in Brain Sections Using High-Resolution In Situ Hybridization

mRNAs are frequently localized to vertebrate axons and their local translation is required for axon pathfinding or branching during development and for maintenance, repair or neurodegeneration in postdevelopmental periods. High throughput analyses have recently revealed that axons have a more dynamic and complex transcriptome than previously expected. These analysis, however have been mostly done in cultured neurons where axons can be isolated from the somato-dendritic compartments. It is virtually impossible to achieve such isolation in whole tissues in vivo. Thus, in order to verify the recruitment of mRNAs and their functional relevance in a whole animal, transcriptome analyses should ideally be combined with techniques that allow the visualization of mRNAs in situ. Recently, novel ISH technologies that detect RNAs at a single-molecule level have been developed. This is especially important when analyzing the subcellular localization of mRNA, since localized RNAs are typically found at low levels. Here we describe two protocols for the detection of axonally-localized mRNAs using a novel ultrasensitive RNA ISH technology. We have combined RNAscope ISH with axonal counterstain using fluorescence immunohistochemistry or histological dyes to verify the recruitment of Atf4 mRNA to axons in vivo in the mature mouse and human brains.

Detection of Axonally Localized mRNAs in Brain Sections Using High-Resolution In Situ Hybridization

RNA in situ hybridization (ISH) enables the visualization of RNAs in cells and tissues. Here we show how combination of RNAscope ISH with immunohistochemistry or histological dyes can be successfully used to detect mRNAs localized to axons in sections of mouse and human brains.

mRNAs are frequently localized to vertebrate axons and their local translation is required for axon pathfinding or branching during development and for ...

Analysis of mRNA Nuclear Export Kinetics in Mammalian Cells by Microinjection

In eukaryotes, messenger RNA (mRNA) is transcribed in the nucleus and must be exported into the cytoplasm to access the translation machinery. Although the nuclear export of mRNA has been studied extensively in Xenopus oocytes1 and genetically tractable organisms such as yeast2 and the Drosophila derived S2 cell line3, few studies had been conducted in mammalian cells. Furthermore the kinetics of mRNA export in mammalian somatic cells could only be inferred indirectly4,5. In order to measure the nuclear export kinetics of mRNA in mammalian tissue culture cells, we have developed an assay that employs the power of microinjection coupled with fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). These assays have been used to demonstrate that in mammalian cells, the majority of mRNAs are exported in a splicing dependent manner6,7, or in manner that requires specific RNA sequences such as the signal sequence coding region (SSCR) 6. In this assay, cells are microinjected with either in vitro synthesized mRNA or plasmid DNA containing the gene of interest. The microinjected cells are incubated for various time points then fixed and the sub-cellular localization of RNA is assessed using FISH. In contrast to transfection, where transcription occurs several hours after the addition of nucleic acids, microinjection of DNA or mRNA allows for rapid expression and allows for the generation of precise kinetic data.

Here we describe an assay that employs the power of microinjection coupled with fluorescent in situ hybridization in order to accurately measure the nuclear export kinetics of mRNA in mammalian somatic cells.

In eukaryotes, messenger RNA (mRNA) is transcribed in the nucleus and must be exported into the cytoplasm to access the translation machinery. Although ...

High Throughput In Vitro Assessment of Latency Reversing Agents on HIV Transcription and Splicing

HIV remains incurable due to the existence of a reservoir of cells that harbors stable and latent form of the virus, which stays invisible to the immune system and is not targeted by the current antiretroviral therapy (cART). Transcription and splicing have been shown to reinforce HIV-1 latency in resting CD4+ T cells. Reversal of latency by the use of latency reversal agents (LRAs) in the &#34;shock and kill&#34; approach has been studied extensively in an attempt to purge this reservoir but has thus far not shown any success in clinical trials due to the lack of development of adequate small molecules that can efficiently perturb this reservoir. The protocol presented here provides a method for reliably and efficiently assessing latency reversal agents (LRAs) on HIV transcription and splicing. This approach is based on the use of an LTR-driven dual color reporter that can simultaneously measure the effect of an LRA on transcription and splicing by flow cytometry. The protocol described here is adequate for adherent cells as well as the cells in suspension. It is useful for testing a large number of drugs in a high throughput system. The method is technically simple to implement and cost-effective. In addition, the use of flow cytometry allows the assessment of cell viability and thus drug toxicity at the same time.

A high throughput protocol for functional assessment of HIV efficient reactivation and clearance of latent proviruses is described and applied by testing the impact of interventions on HIV transcription and splicing. Representative results of the effect of latency reversing agents on LTR-driven transcription and splicing are provided.

HIV remains incurable due to the existence of a reservoir of cells that harbors stable and latent form of the virus, which stays invisible to the immune ...

Immunology and Infection

Small-scale Nuclear Extracts for Functional Assays of Gene-expression Machineries

A great deal of progress in understanding gene expression has been made using in vitro systems. For most studies, functional assays are carried out using extracts that are prepared in bulk from 10-50 or more liters of cells grown in suspension. However, these large-scale preparations are not amenable to rapidly testing in vitro effects that result from a variety of in vivo cellular treatments or conditions. This journal video article shows a method for preparing functional small-scale nuclear extracts, using HeLa cells as an example. This method is carried out using as few as three 150 mm plates of cells grown as adherent monolayers. To illustrate the efficiency of the small-scale extracts, we show that they are as active as bulk nuclear extracts for coupled RNA Polymerase II transcription/splicing reactions. To demonstrate the utility of the extract protocol, we show that splicing is abolished in extracts prepared from HeLa cells treated with the splicing inhibitor drug E7107. The small-scale protocol should be generally applicable to any process or cell type that can be investigated in vitro using cellular extracts. These include patient cells that are only available in limited quantities or cells exposed to numerous agents such as drugs, DNA damaging agents, RNAi, or transfection, which require the use of small cell populations. In addition, small amounts of freshly grown cells are convenient and/or required for some applications.

A protocol for preparation of robust, small-scale HeLa nuclear extracts is described. This protocol is valuable for assays that require use of small populations of cells, such as cells treated with drugs or RNAi. The method should be applicable to a wide variety of gene expression assays and other cell types, including patient cells.

A great deal of progress in understanding gene expression has been made using in vitro systems.  For most studies, functional assays are carried out using ...

Detection of Alternative Splicing During Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

Alternative splicing plays a critical role in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), an essential cellular program that occurs in various physiological and pathological processes. Here we describe a strategy to detect alternative splicing during EMT using an inducible EMT model by expressing the transcription repressor Twist. EMT is monitored by changes in cell morphology, loss of E-cadherin localization at cell-cell junctions, and the switched expression of EMT markers, such as loss of epithelial markers E-cadherin and &#947;-catenin and gain of mesenchymal markers N-cadherin and vimentin. Using isoform-specific primer sets, the alternative splicing of interested mRNAs are analyzed by quantitative RT-PCR. The production of corresponding protein isoforms is validated by immunoblotting assays. The method of detecting splice isoforms described here is also suitable for the study of alternative splicing in other biological processes.

Alternative splicing regulation has been shown to contribute to the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), an essential cellular program in various physiological and pathological processes. Here we describe a method utilizing an inducible EMT model for the detection of alternative splicing during EMT.

Analysis of Spliceosomal snRNA Localization in Human Hela Cells Using Microinjection

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RNA Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization for Long Non-Coding RNA Localization in Human Osteosarcoma Cells

A Reporter Based Cellular Assay for Monitoring Splicing Efficiency

Detection of Axonally Localized mRNAs in Brain Sections Using High-Resolution In Situ Hybridization

Analysis of mRNA Nuclear Export Kinetics in Mammalian Cells by Microinjection

High Throughput In Vitro Assessment of Latency Reversing Agents on HIV Transcription and Splicing

Small-scale Nuclear Extracts for Functional Assays of Gene-expression Machineries

Detection of Alternative Splicing During Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition