We thank Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP, through Grant Tem&#225;tico 2017/03489-1 to JK and fellowship to FLB 2018/05350-3) and the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnol&#243;gico (CNPq) for funding this research. We would like to thank Dr Adrian Krainer for providing the pMTE1A plasmid and Zerler and colleagues for their work in E1A cloning. We also thank Prof. Dr. Patr&#237;cia Moriel, Prof. Dr. Wanda Pereira Almeida, Prof. Dr. Marcelo Lancellotti and Prof. Dr. Karina Kogo Cogo M&#252;ller to allow us to use their laboratory space and equipment.

1. Plating cells
NOTE: In this described protocol, HEK293 stable cell lines, previously generated for stable inducible expression of Nek4 were used21, however, the same protocol is suitable to many other cell lines, such as HEK29322, HeLa23,24,25,26, U-2 OS27, COS728, SH-SY5Y29. The pattern of expression of minigene E1A isoforms under basal conditions varies between these cells and should be characterized for each condition. This protocol is not limited to stable cell lines. The most common approach in evaluation of candidate protein is by transient co-transfection of increasing its amount with fixed amount of the minigene. The same protocol is suitable for knockout cells.
<ol>
	<li>Plate cells considering vehicle, untransfected and GFP controls.</li>
	<li>Culture HEK293 cells with stable expression of the gene of interest in Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% of Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS), 4.5 g/L Glucose, 4 mM L-Glutamine and maintain with 100 &#181;g/mL of hygromycin B, on tissue culture-treated plates at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2 and a humidified atmosphere.</li>
	<li>Split cells using 0.25% trypsin-EDTA. Plate 3 x 105 cells in 6-well plates and incubate them for 24 h at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2. 
	&#8203;NOTE: For transfection, cells must be 70-80% confluent to decrease cell death after the transfection.</li>
</ol>
2. Cell transfection
NOTE: 1-2 &#181;g of pMTE1A minigene plasmid was used here, however the DNA amount, as well as the time of expression, must be kept at minimal to avoid toxicity. For example, high toxicity was observed in HeLa cells after 30 h of transfection with 1 &#181;g of pMTE1A DNA. For the transfection described here, a lipid-based transfection reagent was used
<ol>
	<li>Check cell confluence 24 h after plating and transfect HEK293 stable cells only when 70-80% confluent.</li>
	<li>Remove the cell culture medium carefully with a pipette, instead of using a vacuum pump system. Then carefully add 2 mL of complete DMEM medium without antibiotics and put the plate back in the incubator.</li>
	<li>Prepare a tube with the transfection buffer (200 &#181;L/well), add 2 &#181;g of pMTE1A DNA, vortex and then add 2 &#181;L of transfection reagent. Vortex again and incubate for 10 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Remove plates from the incubator and carefully add the transfection mixture dropwise.</li>
	<li>To HEK293 stable cells, add tetracycline (0.5 &#181;g/mL) for Nek4 expression induction 6 h after the transfection. Medium change is not necessary. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Volumes/amounts described in this section are for one well. Prepare the mixture for all wells used in the experiment in the same tube.</li>
	<li>Prepare one well to transfect with EGFP, or another fluorophore expressing plasmid to estimate the transfection efficiency. Better results can be observed with transfection efficiency of at least 40%, but good performances with lower transfection efficiency were previously observed.</li>
	<li>When using co-transfection (interest protein and minigene) keep a well with non-transfected cells to avoid obtaining results from endogenous mRNA. In the case of E1A, HEK293 cells already express the E1A gene30.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparing the drugs
NOTE: The time and concentration of treatment were chosen based on literature results, which point out changes in alternative splicing for some genes.
<ol>
	<li>Perform a dose-response curve before starting the assay to determine the minimal concentration to alternative splicing induction with no effect in cell viability.</li>
	<li>Prepare a Paclitaxel stock solution at 5 mM concentration in ethanol. The final concentration is 1 &#181;M. Keep at -20 &#176;C. Use 0.02% ethanol as vehicle control.</li>
	<li>Prepare a cisplatin solution by diluting in 0.9% NaCl at around 0.5 mg/mL (1.66 mM). Protect from light, vortex and incubate in a thermal bath, 37 &#176;C for 30 min. The final concentration is 30 &#181;M. Prepare fresh or store at 2-10 &#176;C for until one month. 
	&#8203;NOTE: All drugs must be protected from the light.</li>
</ol>
4. Cell treatment and collection
NOTE: HEK293 stable cells were collected 48 h after the transfection and for this were treated 24 h after the transfection because the highest Nek4 expression level is achieved within 48 h. However, high levels of 13S isoform expression (until 90%) were observed at this time. To decrease the proportion of 13S isoform, try to treat and collect cells 30 h after transfection maximum.
<ol>
	<li>Use RNA/DNase free tips and tubes. Perform total RNA extraction with phenol-chloroform reagent following manufacturer&#39;s recommendation.</li>
	<li>24 h after the transfection, verify cell morphology and transfection efficiency using a fluorescent microscope.</li>
	<li>Remove the cell culture medium, preferentially using a pipette instead of a vacuum pump system. Then add cell culture medium with the chemotherapeutics in the previously described final concentration.</li>
	<li>Incubate at 37 &#176;C, 5% CO2 for 18 - 24 h.</li>
	<li>Collect RNA by discarding the cell culture medium in a container and adding 0.5 - 1 mL of RNA extraction reagent directly to the well. If wells are very confluent, use 1 mL of RNA extraction reagent to improve RNA quality.</li>
	<li>Homogenize with the pipette and transfer to a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube. At this point, the protocol can be paused by storing samples at -80 &#176;C or proceed immediately to the RNA extraction. 
	&#8203;WARNING: The phenol-based RNA extraction reagent is toxic and all procedures should be performed in a chemical fume hood and the residues disposed properly.</li>
</ol>
5. RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis
<ol>
	<li>In a fume hood thaw the samples and incubate for 5 min at room temperature. Add 0.1 -0.2 mL of chloroform and agitate vigorously.</li>
	<li>Incubate for 3 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge for 15 min at 12,000 x g and 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Collect the upper aqueous phase and transfer to a new 1.5 mL centrifuge tube. Collect around 60% of the total volume; however, do not collect the DNA or the organic (lower) phase.</li>
	<li>Add 0.25 - 0.5 mL of isopropanol and agitate by inversion 4 times. Incubate for 10 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge at 12,000 x g for 10 min, at 4 &#176;C and discard the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Wash the RNA pellet twice with ethanol (75% in diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC)-treated water). Centrifuge at 7,500 x g for 5 min and discard the ethanol.</li>
	<li>Remove excess ethanol by inverting the tube on a towel paper and then leave the tube open inside a fume hood to partially dry the pellet for 5 - 10 min.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the RNA pellet in 15 &#181;L of DEPC-treated water.</li>
	<li>Quantify total RNA using absorbance at 230 nm, 260 nm, and 280 nm to verify RNA quality.</li>
	<li>To verify total RNA quality, run a 1% agarose gel pre-treated with 1.2% (v/v) of a 2.5% sodium hypochlorite solution for 30 min31.</li>
	<li>Perform cDNA synthesis using 1-2 &#181;g of total RNA.
	<ol>
		<li>Pipette RNA, 1 &#181;L of oligo-dT (50 &#181;M), 1 &#181;L of dNTP (10 mM) and make up the volume to 12 &#181;L with nuclease free water. Incubate in the thermocycler for 5 min at 65 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Remove samples from the thermocycler to cool down and prepare the reaction mixture: 4 &#181;L of reverse transcriptase buffer, 2 &#181;L of dithiothreitol (DTT), and 1 &#181;L of ribonuclease inhibitor. Incubate at 37 &#176;C for 2 min.</li>
		<li>Add 1 &#181;L of thermo-stable reverse transcriptase. Incubate at 37 &#176;C for 50 min and inactivate the enzyme at 70 &#176;C for 15 min. 
		&#8203;NOTE: The cDNA can be stored at -20 &#176;C for several weeks. Perform a non-reverse transcriptase (NRT) control for genomic contamination from putative intron-retention events discrimination.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. pMTE1A minigene PCR
<ol>
	<li>Perform PCR with the reaction composition (1.5 mM of MgCl2, 0.3 mM of dNTP mix, 0.5 &#181;M of each primer, 2.5 U of a hot-start Taq Polymerase and 150 ng of cDNA) with the following conditions: 
	94&#160;&#176;C for 2 min,&#160;29&#160;cycles of: 94 &#176;C for 1 min, 50 &#176;C for 2 min,&#160;&#8203;72 &#176;C for 2 min,&#160;72&#160;&#176;C for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Load 20-25 &#181;L of the PCR product in a 3% agarose gel containing nucleic acid stain and run at 100 V for approximately 1 h.</li>
</ol>
7. Analysis of the gel using an image processing and analysis software32
<ol>
	<li>After the run, photograph the gel (using a gel imaging acquisition system) avoiding any band saturation and quantify the bands using an&#160;image processing software.</li>
	<li>For quantification consider the bands at ~631 bp, ~493 bp, and ~156 bp to correspond to the 13S, 12S and 9S isoforms, respectively.</li>
	<li>From the software&#39;s File menu, open the image file obtained from the imaging acquisition system. Convert to greyscale, adjust brightness and contrast and remove outlier noise if necessary.</li>
	<li>Draw a rectangle around the first lane with the Rectangle Selection tool and select it through the Analyze | Gels | Select First Lane command, or by pressing the keyboard shortcut for it.</li>
	<li>Use the mouse to click and hold in the middle of the rectangle on the first lane and drag it over to the next lane. Go to Analyze | Gels | Select Next Lane, or press the available shortcut. Repeat this step to all remaining lanes.</li>
	<li>After all the lanes are highlighted and numbered, go to Analyze | Gels | Plot Lanes to draw a profile plot of each lane.</li>
	<li>With the Straight-line selection tool, draw a line across the base of each peak corresponding to each band, leaving out the background noise. After all the peaks, from every lane, has been closed off, select the Wand tool and click inside each peak. For each peak that highlighted, measurements should pop up in the Results window that appears.</li>
	<li>Sum the intensity from all the 3 bands for each sample and calculate the percentage for each isoform relative to the total.</li>
	<li>Plot the percentages of each isoform or the differences in the percentage relative to untreated samples. 
	NOTE: Ensure that the sum of three E1A variants must be equal to 100%.</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Minigenes are important tools to determine the effects in global alternative splicing in vivo. The adenoviral minigene E1A has been used successfully for decades to evaluate the role of proteins by increasing the amount of these in the cell13,14. Here, we propose the minigene E1A use for evaluating alternative splicing after chemotherapeutic exposure. A stable cell line expressing Nek4 isoform 1 was used, avoiding the artifacts of overexpression caused by transie...

Splicing is among the most important steps in eukaryotic mRNA processing that occurs simultaneously to 5&#180;mRNA capping and 3&#180;mRNA polyadenylation, comprising of intron removal followed by exon junction. The recognition of the splicing sites (SS) by the spliceosome, a ribonucleoprotein complex containing small ribonucleoproteins (snRNP U1, U2, U4 and U6), small RNAs (snRNAs) and several regulatory proteins1 is necessary for splicing.
Besides intron removal (constitutive splicing), in eukaryotes, introns can be retained and exons can be excluded, configuring the process called mRNA alternative splicing (AS). The alternative pre-mRNA splicing expands the coding capacity of eukaryotic genomes allowing the production of a large and diverse number of proteins from a relatively small number of genes. It is estimated that 95-100% of human mRNAs that contain more than one exon can undergo alternative splicing2,3. This is fundamental for biological processes like neuronal development, apoptosis activation and cellular stress response4, providing the organism alternatives to regulate cell functioning using the same repertoire of genes.
The machinery necessary for alternative splicing is the same used for constitutive splicing and the usage of the SS is the main determinant for alternative splicing occurrence. Constitutive splicing is related to the use of strong splicing sites, which are usually more similar to consensus motifs for spliceosome recognition5.
Alternative exons are typically recognized less efficiently than constitutive exons once its cis-regulatory elements, the sequences in 5&#180;SS and 3&#180;SS flanking these exons, show an inferior binding capacity to the spliceosome. mRNA also contains regions named enhancers or silencers located in exons (exonic splicing enhancers (ESEs) and exonic splicing silencers (ESSs)) and introns (intronic splicing enhancers (ISEs) and intronic splicing silencers (ISSs)) that enhance or repress exon usage, respectively5. These sequences are recognized by trans-regulatory elements, or splicing factors (SF). SFs are represented mainly by two families of proteins, the serine/arginine rich splicing factors (SRSFs) which bind to ESEs and the family of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) which bind to ESSs sequences5.
Alternative splicing can be modulated by phosphorylation/ dephosphorylation of trans- factors modifying the interactions partners and cellular localization of splicing factors6,7,8. Identifying new regulators of splicing factors can provide new tools to regulate splicing and, consequently, some cancer treatments.
Anufrieva et al.9, in a mRNA microarray gene expression profile, observed consistent changes in levels of spliceosomal components in 101 cell lines and after different stress conditions (platinum-based drugs, gamma irradiation, topoisomerase inhibitors, tyrosine kinase inhibitors and taxanes). The relationship among splicing pattern and chemotherapy efficacy has already been demonstrated in lung cancer cells, which are chemotherapy resistant, showing changes in caspase-9 variants rate10. HEK293 cells treated with chemotherapeutics panel show changes in splicing with an increase in pro-apoptotic variants. Gabriel et al.11 observed changes in at least 700 events of splicing after cisplatin treatment in different cell lines, pointing out that splicing pathways are cisplatin-affected. Splicing modulators have already demonstrated anti-tumoral activity, showing that splicing is important to tumoral development and, mainly, chemotherapy response12. Hence, characterizing new proteins that regulate splicing after cellular stressors agents, like chemotherapeutics, is very important to discover new strategies of treatment.
The clues of alternative splicing regulation from interactome studies, particularly important to characterize functions of new or uncharacterized proteins, can demand a more general and simple approach to verify the real role of the protein in AS. Minigenes are important tools for analysis of the general role of a protein affecting splicing regulation. They contain segments from a gene of interest containing alternatively spliced and flanking genomic regions13. Using a minigene tool allows the analysis of splicing in vivo with several advantages such as the length of the minigene which is minor and therefore is not a limitation to the amplification reaction; the same minigene can be evaluated in different cell lines; all cellular components, mainly their regulating post-translational modification (phosphorylation and changes in cell compartments) are present and can be addressed13,14. Moreover, changes in alternative splicing pattern can be observed after cellular stress and, the use of a minigene system, allow to identify the pathway being modulated by different stimuli.
There are several minigene systems already described which are specific for different kinds of splicing events13,14, however, as a preliminary assay, the minigene E1A15 is a very well established alternative splicing reporter system for the study of 5&#180;SS selection in vivo. From only one gene, E1A, five mRNAs are produced by alternative splicing based on selection of three different 5&#8242; splice sites and of one major or one minor 3&#8242; splice site16,17,18. The expression of E1A variants changes according to the period of Adenoviral infection19,20.
We have shown previously that both Nek4 isoforms interact with splicing factors such as SRSF1 and hnRNPA1 and while isoform 2 changes minigene E1A alternative splicing, isoform 1 has no effect in that21. Because isoform 1 is the most abundant isoform and changes chemotherapy resistance and DNA damage response, we evaluate if it could change minigene E1A alternative splicing in a stress condition.
Minigene assay is a simple, low-cost and rapid method, since it only needs RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, amplification and agarose gel analyses, and can be a useful tool to evaluate since a possible effect on alternative splicing by a protein of interests until the effect of different treatments on cellular alternative splicing pattern.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>100 pb DNA Ladder</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15628-050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6 wells plate</td>
			<td>Sarstedt</td>
			<td>833920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A9539-250G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cisplatin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P4394</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DEPC water</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>AM9920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>11965118</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dNTP mix</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>10297-018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum - FBS</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>12657029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DMIL LED FLUO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel imaging acquisition system - ChemiDoc Gel Imagin System</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFP - pEGFPC3</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK293 stable cells - HEK293 Flp-In</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Generated from Flp-In&#8482; T-REx&#8482; 293 - Invitrogen and described in ref 21</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hygromycin B</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>10687010</td>
			<td>Used for Flp-In cells maintenemant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image processing and analysis software - FIJI software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>ref. 32</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lipid- based transfection reagent - jetOPTIMUS Polyplus Reagent</td>
			<td>Polyplus</td>
			<td>117-07</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oligo DT</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>18418020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paclitxel</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>P3456</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plate Reader/ UV absorbance</td>
			<td>Biotech</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Epoch Biotek/ Take3 adapter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pMTE1A plasmid</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Provided by Dr. Adrian Krainer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pMTE1A F</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>&#160;5&#8217; -ATTATCTGCCACGGAGGTGT-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pMTE1A R</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>5&#8217; -GGATAGCAGGCGCCATTTTA-3&#8217;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refrigerated centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>F5810R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reverse Transcriptase - M-MLV</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>28025013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reverse transcriptase - Superscript IV</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>18090050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ribunuclease inhibitor RNAse OUT</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>10777-019</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNA extraction phenol-chloroform based reagent - Trizol</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>15596018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SybrSafe DNA gel stain</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>S33102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Taq Platinum</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>10966026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetracyclin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T3383</td>
			<td>Used for Flag empty or Nek4- Flag expression induction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermocycler Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>T100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T4799</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using the e1a minigene tool to study mrna splicing changes

mRNA processing involves multiple simultaneous steps to prepare mRNA for translation, such as 5&#180;capping, poly-A addition and splicing. Besides constitutive splicing, alternative mRNA splicing allows the expression of multifunctional proteins from one gene. As interactome studies are generally the first analysis for new or unknown proteins, the association of the bait protein with splicing factors is an indication that it can participate in mRNA splicing process, but to determine in what context or what genes are regulated is an empirical process. A good starting point to evaluate this function is using the classical minigene tool. Here we present the adenoviral E1A minigene usage for evaluating the alternative splicing changes after different cellular stress stimuli. We evaluated the splicing of E1A minigene in HEK293 stably overexpressing Nek4 protein after different stressing treatments. The protocol includes E1A minigene transfection, cell treatment, RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis, followed by PCR and gel analysis and quantification of the E1A spliced variants. The use of this simple and well-established method combined with specific treatments is a reliable starting point to shed light on cellular processes or what genes can be regulated by mRNA splicing.

A 5&#180; splice sites&#160;assay using E1A minigene was performed to evaluate changes in splicing profile in cells after chemotherapy exposition. The role of Nek4 - isoform 1 in AS regulation in HEK293 stable cells after paclitaxel or cisplatin treatment was evaluated.
Adenoviral E1A region is responsible for the production of three main mRNAs from one RNA precursor because of the use of different splice donors. They share comm...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using the E1A Minigene Tool to Study mRNA Splicing Changes at JoVE.com

Using the E1A Minigene Tool to Study mRNA Splicing Changes

This protocol presents a rapid and useful tool for evaluating the role of a protein with uncharacterized function in alternative splicing regulation after chemotherapeutic treatment.

mRNA processing involves multiple simultaneous steps to prepare mRNA for translation, such as 5&#180;capping, poly-A addition and splicing. Besides ...

using-the-e1a-minigene-tool-to-study-mrna-splicing-changes

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

4.7K Views.  Universidade Estadual de Campinas. This protocol presents a rapid and useful tool for evaluating the role of a protein with uncharacterized function in alternative splicing regulation after chemotherapeutic treatment.

Video: Using the E1A Minigene Tool to Study mRNA Splicing Changes

Coculture Assays to Study Macrophage and Microglia Stimulation of Glioblastoma Invasion

Glioblastoma multiforme (grade IV glioma) is a very aggressive human cancer with a median survival of 1 year post diagnosis. Despite the increased understanding of the molecular events that give rise to glioblastomas, this cancer still remains highly refractory to conventional treatment. Surgical resection of high grade brain tumors is rarely complete due to the highly infiltrative nature of glioblastoma cells. Therapeutic approaches which attenuate glioblastoma cell invasion therefore is an attractive option. Our laboratory and others have shown that tumor associated macrophages and microglia (resident brain macrophages) strongly stimulate glioblastoma invasion. The protocol described in this paper is used to model glioblastoma-macrophage/microglia interaction using in vitro culture assays. This approach can greatly facilitate the development and/or discovery of drugs that disrupt the communication with the macrophages that enables this malignant behavior. We have established two robust coculture invasion assays where microglia/macrophages stimulate glioma cell invasion by 5 - 10 fold. Glioblastoma cells labelled with a fluorescent marker or constitutively expressing a fluorescent protein are plated without and with macrophages/microglia on matrix-coated polycarbonate chamber inserts or embedded in a three dimensional matrix. Cell invasion is assessed by using fluorescent microscopy to image and count only invasive cells on the underside of the filter. Using these assays, several pharmacological inhibitors (JNJ-28312141, PLX3397, Gefitinib, and Semapimod), have been identified which block macrophage/microglia stimulated glioblastoma invasion.

Understanding the malignant behavior of cancer requires creating accurate models of how tumor cells interact with components of the tumor microenvironment, such as macrophages. Here we describe two methods to study glioblastoma cell interaction with tumor associated macrophages and microglia where the effect on glioblastoma invasion is assessed.

Glioblastoma multiforme (grade IV glioma) is a very aggressive human cancer with a median survival of 1 year post diagnosis. Despite the increased ...

Conditional Knockdown of Gene Expression in Cancer Cell Lines to Study the Recruitment of Monocytes/Macrophages to the Tumor Microenvironment

siRNA and shRNA-mediated knock down (KD) methods of regulating gene expression are invaluable tools for understanding gene and protein function. However, in the case that the KD of the protein of interest has a lethal effect on cells or the anticipated effect of the KD is time-dependent, unconditional KD methods are not appropriate. Conditional systems are more suitable in these cases and have been the subject of much interest. These include Ecdysone-inducible overexpression systems, Cytochrome P-450 induction system1, and the tetracycline regulated gene expression systems. 
The tetracycline regulated gene expression system enables reversible control over protein expression by induction of shRNA expression in the presence of tetracycline. In this protocol, we present an experimental design using functional Tet-ON system in human cancer cell lines for conditional regulation of gene expression. We then demonstrate the use of this system in the study of tumor cell-monocyte interaction.

This protocol serves as a scheme for setting up a functional Tet-ON system in cancer cell lines and its subsequent use, in particular for studying the role of tumor cell-derived proteins in recruitment of monocytes/macrophages to the tumor microenvironment.

siRNA and shRNA-mediated knock down (KD) methods of regulating gene expression are invaluable tools for understanding gene and protein function. However, ...

Using the Dot Assay to Analyze Migration of Cell Sheets

Although complex organisms appear static, their tissues are under a continuous turnover. As cells age, die, and are replaced by new cells, cells move within tissues in a tightly orchestrated manner. During tumor development, this equilibrium is disturbed, and tumor cells leave the epithelium of origin to invade the local microenvironment, to travel to distant sites, and to ultimately form metastatic tumors at distant sites. The dot assay is a simple, two-dimensional unconstrained migration assay, to assess the net movement of cell sheets into a cell-free area, and to analyze parameters of cell migration using time-lapse imaging. Here, the dot assay is demonstrated using a human invasive, lung colony forming breast cancer cell line, MCF10CA1a, to analyze the cells' migratory response to epidermal growth factor (EGF), which is known to increase malignant potential of breast cancer cells and to alter the migratory phenotype of cells.

Cell migration is essential for development, tissue maintenance and repair, and tumorigenesis, and is regulated by growth factors, chemokines, and cytokines. This protocol describes the dot assay, a two-dimensional, unconstrained migration assay to assess the migratory phenotype of attached, cohesive cell sheets in response to microenvironmental cues.

Although complex organisms appear static, their tissues are under a continuous turnover. As cells age, die, and are replaced by new cells, cells move ...

Dried Blood and Serum Spots As A Useful Tool for Sample Storage to Evaluate Cancer Biomarkers

Blood sample quality is crucial to ensure accurate downstream analyses such as real-time PCR or ELISA. Correct storage of biological materials is the starting point to achieve reproducible and reliable results. All samples should be treated in the same way from blood collection to storage. Depending on the analyses to be performed, whole blood and serum samples should be stored at -20 &#176;C or -80 &#176;C until use. Blood/serum samples should also be aliquoted to avoid multiple freeze-thawing. Another important issue is the sample conditions during shipment from one laboratory to another. If dry ice is not available or the shipment takes longer than a few days, alternative approaches are needed. One option is to use filter paper for blood collection. Here, we propose a method for blood and serum sample collection that takes advantage of dried blood spots (DBS) and dried serum spots (DSS). We developed the procedure to extract DNA from DBS for the downstream evaluation of some single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) by real time PCR. We also optimized an ELISA assay starting from proteins eluted from DSS. This method can be used with other ELISA assays or procedures evaluating proteins.

This protocol describes a simple and useful method to store peripheral blood and serum/plasma for downstream analyses such as single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) evaluation and ELISA assay.

Blood sample quality is crucial to ensure accurate downstream analyses such as real-time PCR or ELISA. Correct storage of biological materials is the ...

Utilizing 18F-FDG PET/CT Imaging and Quantitative Histology to Measure Dynamic Changes in the Glucose Metabolism in Mouse Models of Lung Cancer

A hallmark of advanced tumors is a switch to aerobic glycolysis that is readily measured by [18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography (18F-FDG PET) imaging. Co-mutations in the KRAS proto-oncogene and the LKB1 tumor suppressor gene are frequent events in lung cancer that drive hypermetabolic, glycolytic tumor growth. A critical pathway regulating the growth and metabolism of these tumors is the mechanistic target of the rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, which can be effectively targeted using selective catalytic mTOR kinase inhibitors. The mTOR inhibitor MLN0128 suppresses glycolysis in mice bearing tumors with Kras and Lkb1 co-mutations, referred to as KL mice. The therapy response in KL mice is first measured by 18F-FDG PET and computed tomography (CT) imaging before and after the delivery of MLN0128. By utilizing 18F-FDG PET/CT, researchers are able to measure dynamic changes in the glucose metabolism in genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) of lung cancer following a therapeutic intervention with targeted therapies. This is followed by ex vivo autoradiography and a quantitative immunohistochemical (qIHC) analysis using morphometric software. The use of qIHC enables the detection and quantification of distinct changes in the biomarker profiles following treatment as well as the characterization of distinct tumor pathologies. The coupling of PET imaging to quantitative histology is an effective strategy to identify metabolic and therapeutic responses in vivo in mouse models of disease.

Utilizing 18F-FDG PET/CT Imaging and Quantitative Histology to Measure Dynamic Changes in the Glucose Metabolism in Mouse Models of Lung Cancer

In this protocol, we describe how to utilize [18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography and computed tomography (18F-FDG PET/CT) imaging to measure the tumor metabolic response to the targeted therapy MLN0128 in a Kras/Lkb1 mutant mouse model of lung cancer and coupled imaging with high resolution ex vivo autoradiography and quantitative histology.

A hallmark of advanced tumors is a switch to aerobic glycolysis that is readily measured by [18F]-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography ...

A Syngeneic Pancreatic Cancer Mouse Model to Study the Effects of Irreversible Electroporation

Pancreatic cancer (PC), a disease which kills approximately 40,000 patients each year in the US, has successfully evaded several therapeutic approaches including the promising immunotherapeutic strategies. Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a non-thermal ablation technique that induces tumor cell death without destruction of adjacent collagenous structures, thus enabling the procedure to be performed in tumors very close to blood vessels. Unlike thermal ablation techniques, IRE results in gradual apoptotic cell death, along with immediate ablation induced necrosis, and is currently in clinical use for selected patients with locally advanced PC. An ablative, non-target specific procedure like IRE can induce a myriad of responses in the tumor microenvironment. A few studies have addressed the effects of IRE on tumor growth in other tumor types, but none have focused on PC. We have developed a syngeneic mouse model of PC in which subcutaneous (SQ) and orthotopic tumors can be successfully treated with IRE in a highly controlled setting, facilitating various longitudinal studies post procedure. This animal model serves as a robust system to study the effects of IRE and ways to improve the clinical efficacy of IRE.

Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a non-thermal ablation technique used for the treatment of locally advanced pancreatic cancer. Being a relatively new technique, the effects of IRE on the tumor growth are poorly understood. We have developed a syngeneic mouse model that facilitates studying the effects of IRE on pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer (PC), a disease which kills approximately 40,000 patients each year in the US, has successfully evaded several therapeutic approaches ...

Live-Cell Imaging Assays to Study Glioblastoma Brain Tumor Stem Cell Migration and Invasion

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor that is poorly controlled with the currently available treatment options. Key features of GBMs include rapid proliferation and pervasive invasion into the normal brain. Recurrence is thought to result from the presence of radio- and chemo-resistant brain tumor stem cells (BTSCs) that invade away from the initial cancerous mass and, thus, evade surgical resection. Hence, therapies that target BTSCs and their invasive abilities may improve the otherwise poor prognosis of this disease. Our group and others have successfully established and characterized BTSC cultures from GBM patient samples. These BTSC cultures demonstrate fundamental cancer stem cell properties such as clonogenic self-renewal, multi-lineage differentiation, and tumor initiation in immune-deficient mice. In order to improve on the current therapeutic approaches for GBM, a better understanding of the mechanisms of BTSC migration and invasion is necessary. In GBM, the study of migration and invasion is restricted, in part, due to the limitations of existing techniques which do not fully account for the in vitro growth characteristics of BTSCs grown as neurospheres. Here, we describe rapid and quantitative live-cell imaging assays to study both the migration and invasion properties of BTSCs. The first method described is the BTSC migration assay which measures the migration toward a chemoattractant gradient. The second method described is the BTSC invasion assay which images and quantifies a cellular invasion from neurospheres into a matrix. The assays described here are used for the quantification of BTSC migration and invasion over time and under different treatment conditions.

Here, we describe live-cell imaging techniques to quantitatively measure the migration and invasion of glioblastoma brain tumor stem cells over time and under multiple treatment conditions.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor that is poorly controlled with the currently available treatment options. Key features of GBMs include ...

In Vitro Assay to Study Tumor-macrophage Interaction

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a malignant brain tumor with no cure, has up to a half the tumor mass TAMs. TAMs can be pro-tumoral or anti-tumoral, depending on the activation of specific genes in the cells. Genetic mutations in the tumors, through regulating cytokine expression, can affect recruitment of TAMs to the tumor microenvironment. Here, we describe a quantitative cell-based assay to assess macrophage recruitment by the conditioned medium from the tumor cells. This assay uses the human macrophage cell line MV-4-11 to study macrophage attraction by the conditioned medium from glioblastoma, allowing for high reproducibility and low variability. Data generated with this assay can contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between the tumor and the tumor microenvironment. Similar assay can be used to assess interaction between the tumor cells and other immune cells, including T cells and natural killer (NK) cells.

This article represents a useful in vitro assay to evaluate the capability of conditioned medium from tumor cells to attract macrophages.

Tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) account for a large percentage of cells in the tumor mass for different types of cancers. Glioblastoma (GBM), a ...

Using the Chicken Chorioallantoic Membrane In Vivo Model to Study Gynecological and Urological Cancers

Mouse models are the benchmark tests for in vivo cancer studies. However, cost, time, and ethical considerations have led to calls for alternative in vivo cancer models. The chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model provides an inexpensive, rapid alternative that permits direct visualization of tumor development and is suitable for in vivo imaging. As such, we sought to develop an optimized protocol for engrafting gynecological and urological tumors into this model, which we present here. Approximately 7 days postfertilization, the air cell is moved to the vascularized side of the egg, where an opening is created in the shell. Tumors from murine and human cell lines and primary tissues can then be engrafted. These are typically seeded in a mixture of extracellular matrix and medium to avoid cellular dispersal and provide nutrient support until the cells recruit a vascular supply. Tumors may then grow for up to an additional 14 days prior to the eggs hatching. By implanting cells stably transduced with firefly luciferase, bioluminescence imaging can be used for the sensitive detection of tumor growth on the membrane and cancer cell spread throughout the embryo. This model can potentially be used to study tumorigenicity, invasion, metastasis, and therapeutic effectiveness. The chicken CAM model requires significantly less time and financial resources compared to traditional murine models. Because the eggs are immunocompromised and immune tolerant, tissues from any organism can potentially be implanted without costly transgenic animals (e.g., mice) required for implantation of human tissues. However, many of the advantages of this model could potentially also be limitations, including the short tumor generation time and immunocompromised/immune tolerant status. Additionally, although all tumor types presented here engraft in the chicken chorioallantoic membrane model, they do so with varying degrees of tumor growth.

We present the chicken chorioallantoic membrane model as an alternative, transplantable, in vivo model for the engraftment of gynecological and urological cancer cell lines and patient-derived tumors.

Mouse models are the benchmark tests for in vivo cancer studies. However, cost, time, and ethical considerations have led to calls for alternative in vivo ...

Portal Vein Injection of Colorectal Cancer Organoids to Study the Liver Metastasis Stroma

Hepatic metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related death. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), a major component of the tumor microenvironment, play a crucial role in metastatic CRC progression and predict poor patient prognosis. However, there is a lack of satisfactory mouse models to study the crosstalk between metastatic cancer cells and CAFs. Here, we present a method to investigate how liver metastasis progression is regulated by the metastatic niche and possibly could be restrained by stroma-directed therapy. Portal vein injection of CRC organoids generated a desmoplastic reaction, which faithfully recapitulated the fibroblast-rich histology of human CRC liver metastases. This model was tissue-specific with a higher tumor burden in the liver when compared to an intra-splenic injection model, simplifying mouse survival analyses. By injecting luciferase-expressing tumor organoids, tumor growth kinetics could be monitored by in vivo imaging. Moreover, this preclinical model provides a useful platform to assess the efficacy of therapeutics targeting the tumor mesenchyme. We describe methods to examine whether adeno-associated virus-mediated delivery of a tumor-inhibiting stromal gene to hepatocytes could remodel the tumor microenvironment and improve mouse survival. This approach enables the development and assessment of novel therapeutic strategies to inhibit hepatic metastasis of CRC.

Portal vein injection of colorectal cancer (CRC) organoids generates stroma-rich liver metastasis. This mouse model of CRC hepatic metastasis represents a useful tool to study tumor-stroma interactions and develop novel stroma-directed therapeutics such as adeno-associated virus-mediated gene therapies.

Hepatic metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related death. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), a major component of the ...