Name: convergent polishing: a simple, rapid, full aperture polishing process of high quality optical flats & spheres
Uploaded: 2014-12-01T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 13 min 7 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres at JoVE.com

This work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 within the LDRD program.

1.准备抛光和研磨液的首先准备收敛抛光系统（特别是称为C onvergent， 我 nitial表面独立，S英格尔迭代，R ogue无颗粒抛光或CISR（发音为&#39;剪刀&#39;））7,17通过安装垫和隔，调节垫，稀释＆化学稳定浆料，并结合过滤系统内的浆液。 <ol><li>在CISR抛光，坚持聚氨酯垫到花岗岩一圈基地。一个边缘的第一附着垫和在方向施加压力朝向相对边缘，以尽量减少空气间隙。修剪悬垂垫，然后使用剃刀刀片和滚筒刺穿并在必要时除去气泡。 </li><li>第一次使用时，每100〜h时抛光，金刚石条件使用CMP金刚石修整垫R（直径50mm; 0.6磅施加的压力; 5分钟停留在为25mm的间距增量每个径向圈位置;旋转一圈25转）用流动的去离子水。 </li><li>用流动的去离子水，抛光迭代之间，从垫采用原位超声波清洗机（圈旋转5转〜2分钟停留在每个径向位置）清除残留的泥浆，玻璃制品。 </li><li>上的形状独特的隔膜的重量，附着双面泡棉胶带，然后将隔膜材料（ 例如 ，预先切割的玻璃或其它非穿着材料）。修剪任何悬垂泡沫带相匹配的隔膜材料和重量的形状。注意隔膜设计（包括形状和重量）改变为不同尺寸的工件和研具7,17的。 </li><li>制备抛光浆料以波美4浓度（具体地按体积混合〜1份氧化铈抛光浆料和〜9份去离子（DI）水的11部总cket）。检查波美用波美浮动。加〜5毫升KOH（10μM）的pH调节至9.5，并添加〜专有表面19120毫升（1体积％）。调整pH和波美抛光的每24个小时。 </li><li>用准备好的泥浆进入​​过滤系统安装水桶。然后安装所需的CMP颗粒物过滤器进入过滤系统。让过滤系统内的淤浆再循环数小时。 </li><li>浆料的测量的粒度分布（ 例如 ，使用单粒子光学传感技术），以确保尾端分布是充分流氓无颗粒9,20。 </li></ol> 2.准备工件（蚀刻和方块） 前抛光，化学蚀刻作为接收的细地工件，以减少所需的除去亚表面研磨损伤21的材料去除量。然后，方框工件（如果纵横比（ 即长度/厚度）为&gt; 10）使用一种新的音调按钮阻塞（PBB）技术，以防止工件从阻断和抛光22中弯曲。 <ol><li>蚀刻精细地工件（具体为265 X 265×8 mm 3的熔凝石英玻璃平板）的一个填充有高频罐:NH 4 F（6:1的缓冲氧化物蚀刻（BOE）3倍稀释用DI水）6小时除去10玻璃从工件表面微米。注意！京东方是非常危险的;穿戴适当的个人防护装备（PPE）。从蚀刻罐中取出工件，积极冲洗工件与去离子水，并允许工件风干垂直。 </li><li>在使用明亮的光检查在黑暗的房间磨削过程中检查工件深的伤害。如果没有发现深的伤害，继续下一步，否则工件发回重磨。 </li><li>升温阻挡间距在胶枪〜95ºC和地点沥青水滴（也称为按钮）（〜0.06克）上的脸堵板9×9阵列（81按键与26毫米间距）。对于不同尺寸的工件，请参考设计的理想数量，大小规则，和音调按钮22的间隔。放置阻挡板与所施加的按钮正视在预热烘箱中在70 ºC。 </li><li>适用胶带到未待抛光工件的表面上。避免产生气泡或过度伸展的胶带。 </li><li>放置工件用胶带面朝下到上的遮挡板在烤箱的按钮。覆盖工件键块，以尽量减少对流。 1.5小时后，将炉冷却至10℃/小时至室温。冷却后，就被阻止的工件的节距厚度应为〜1毫米。 </li></ol> 3.收敛抛光<ol><li>打开湿度系统在CISR抛光机的环境室中，以防止在抛光期间由干燥浆料，并尽量减少流氓颗粒划伤工件。 </li><li>插件身高和挂载专门设计并准备入隔抛光。安装PBB工件放入CISR抛光和下部支臂保持工件。 </li><li>在CISR波兰工件4小时以25转75毫米〜径向行程，并与从1加仑/分钟过滤系统泥浆流匹配一圈工件旋转速度。 注:阻挡板兼作工件上的负荷重量相应于0.6 psi的施加压力。 </li><li>关闭一圈工件旋转和泥浆流。从CISR抛光去除PBB工件和沉没入DI装满水的浴缸。擦拭工件表面无尘布，而淹没。从浴中取出PBB工件和喷淋漂洗用去离子水。 </li><li>分块工件通过插入垫片在工件块接口。从工件表面去除胶带。积极冲洗工件与DI水和空气干燥。 </li><li> PBB工件如第2部分所述，然后重复宝面对反对如在第3节中描述利升过程。 </li></ol> 4.计量检验<ol><li>使用干涉测量工件反射的两侧的波前（ 即 ，表面图）以及发送波阵面。 </li><li>明亮的光线检测站山工件测量使用光学加工标准方法的刮伤/坑性质。工件的简短BOE蚀刻，如在步骤2.1中所述，可以使用以暴露隐划痕用于高通量的激光应用中使用的工件。用于在工件上细的划痕或粗糙度的测定中，标准光学显微镜或白光干涉可被使用。 </li><li>商店中使用的脸的工件的容器最小化的接触完成的工件。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Anderson, D., Burge, J., Thompson, B., Malacara, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ch+28.+Handbook+of+optical+engineering.">Ch 28. Handbook of optical engineering.</a> Optical fabrication. , (2001).</li><li>Karow, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Fabrication Methods for Precision Optics. , (1993).</li><li>Brown, N. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+short+course+in+optical+fabrication+technology.">A short course in optical fabrication technology.</a> , (1981).</li><li>Cook, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemical+processes+in+glass+polishing.">Chemical processes in glass polishing.</a> J. Non-Crystal. Solids. 120, 152-171 (1990).</li><li>Preston, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Structure+of+Abraded+Glass+Surfaces.">The Structure of Abraded Glass Surfaces.</a> Trans. Opt. Soc. 23 (3), 141-14 (1922).</li><li>Suratwala, T., Feit, M., Steele, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toward+Deterministic+Material+Removal+and+Surface+Figure+During+Fused+Silica+Pad+Polishing.">Toward Deterministic Material Removal and Surface Figure During Fused Silica Pad Polishing.</a> J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 93 (5), 1326-1340 (2010).</li><li>Suratwala, T., Steele, R., Feit, M., Desjardin, R., Mason, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Convergent+Pad+Polishing+of+amorphous+fused+silica.">Convergent Pad Polishing of amorphous fused silica.</a> International Journal of Applied Glass Science. 3 (1), 14-28 (2012).</li><li>Suratwala, T., Feit, M., Steele, R., Wong, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+Temperature+and+Material+Deposit+on+Material+Removal+Uniformity+during+Optical+Pad+Polishing.">Influence of Temperature and Material Deposit on Material Removal Uniformity during Optical Pad Polishing.</a> J. Am. Ceram. Soc. , (2014).</li><li>Suratwala, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microscopic+removal+function+and+the+relationship+between+slurry+particle+size+distribution+and+workpiece+roughness+during+pad+polishing.">Microscopic removal function and the relationship between slurry particle size distribution and workpiece roughness during pad polishing.</a> J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 91 (1), 81-91 (2014).</li><li>Terrell, E., Higgs, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrodynamics+of+Slurry+Flow+in+Chemical+Mechanical+Polishing.">Hydrodynamics of Slurry Flow in Chemical Mechanical Polishing.</a> J. Electrochem. Soc. 153 (6), 15-22 (2006).</li><li>Runnels, S., Eyman, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tribology+Analysis+of+Chemical+MechanicalPolishing.">Tribology Analysis of Chemical MechanicalPolishing.</a> J. Electrochem. Soc. 141 (6), 1698-1701 (1994).</li><li>Park, S., Cho, C., Ahn, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrodynamic+Analysis+of+Chemical+Mechanical+Polishing+Process.">Hydrodynamic Analysis of Chemical Mechanical Polishing Process.</a> J. Tribology Int. 33, 723-730 (2000).</li><li>Luo, J., Dornfeld, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+Abrasive+Size+Distribution+in+Chemical+Mechanical+Planarization:+Modeling+and+Verification.">Effects of Abrasive Size Distribution in Chemical Mechanical Planarization: Modeling and Verification.</a> IEEE T. Semicond. M. 16 (3), 469-476 (2003).</li><li>Luo, J., Dornfeld, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Material+Removal+Mechanism+in+Chemical+Mechanical+Polishing:+Theory+and+Modeling.">Material Removal Mechanism in Chemical Mechanical Polishing: Theory and Modeling.</a> IEEE T. Semiconduct. M. 14, 112-133 (2001).</li><li>Bastaninejad, M., Ahmadi, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+the+Effects+of+Abrasive+Size+Distribution,+Adhesion,+and+Surface+Plastic+Deformation+on+Chemical+Mechanical+Polishing.">Modeling the Effects of Abrasive Size Distribution, Adhesion, and Surface Plastic Deformation on Chemical Mechanical Polishing.</a> J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 (9), 720-730 (2005).</li><li>Sampurno, Y., Sudargho, F., Zhuang, Y., Ashizawa, T., Morishima, H., Philipossian, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Cerium+Oxide+Particles+Sizes+in+Oxide+Chemical+Mechanical+Planarization.">Effect of Cerium Oxide Particles Sizes in Oxide Chemical Mechanical Planarization.</a> Electrochem. Solid State. 12 (6), 191-194 (2009).</li><li>Suratwala, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Method+and+system+for+Convergent+Polishing.">Method and system for Convergent Polishing.</a> US Provisional Patent Application. , (2011).</li><li>Suratwala, T., Feit, M., Steele, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Apparatus+and+Method+for+Deterministic+Control+of+Surface+Figure+During+Full+Aperture+Polishing.">Apparatus and Method for Deterministic Control of Surface Figure During Full Aperture Polishing.</a> US Patent Application. US. , (2010).</li><li>Dylla-Spears, R., Feit, M., Miller, P., Steele, R., Suratwala, T., Wong, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Method+for+preventing+agglomeration+of+charged+colloids+without+loss+of+surface+activity.">Method for preventing agglomeration of charged colloids without loss of surface activity.</a> US Provisional Patent Application. , (2012).</li><li>Dylla-Spears, R., Wong, L., Miller, P., Feit, M., Steele, R., Suratwala, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Charged+Micelle+Halo+Mechanism+for+Agglomeration+Reduction+in+Metal+Oxide+Particle+Based+Polishing+Slurries.">Charged Micelle Halo Mechanism for Agglomeration Reduction in Metal Oxide Particle Based Polishing Slurries.</a> Colloid Surface A. 447, 32-43 (2014).</li><li>Wong, L., Suratwala, T., Feit, M., Miller, P., Steele, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effect+of+HF/NH4F+Etching+on+the+Morphology+of+Surface+Fractures+on+Fused+Silica.">The Effect of HF/NH4F Etching on the Morphology of Surface Fractures on Fused Silica.</a> J. Non-Crystal. Solids. 355, 797 (2009).</li><li>Feit, M., DesJardin, R., Steele, R., Suratwala, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimized+pitch+button+blocking+for+polishing+high-aspect-ratio+optics.">Optimized pitch button blocking for polishing high-aspect-ratio optics.</a> Appl. Opt. 51 (35), 8350-8359 (2013).</li><li>Suratwala, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sub-surface+mechanical+damage+distributions+during+grinding+of+fused+silica.">Sub-surface mechanical damage distributions during grinding of fused silica.</a> J. Non-Crystal. Solids. 352, 5601 (2006).</li><li>Miller, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Distribution+of+Sub-surface+Damage+in+Fused+Silica.">The Distribution of Sub-surface Damage in Fused Silica.</a> SPIE. 5991, (2005).</li><li>Suratwala, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Rogue+particles+on+the+sub-surface+damage+of+fused+silica+during+grinding/polishing.">Effect of Rogue particles on the sub-surface damage of fused silica during grinding/polishing.</a> J. Non-Crystal. Solids. 354, 2003 (2008).</li><li>Suratwala, T., Miller, P., Ehrmann, P., Steele, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polishing+slurry+induced+surface+haze+on+phosphate+laser+glasses.">Polishing slurry induced surface haze on phosphate laser glasses.</a> J. Non-Crystal. Solids. 351, 2091-2101 (2004).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

正如引言中讨论，成功实现收敛相对于抛光表面图涉及消除或减少所有影响空间的材料的非均匀性，除了对工件 - 研具失配，由于工件形状的现象。如果这些现象的任何一个没有适当地减轻，无论是通过过程控制或通过抛光，然后将所需的会聚点不能达到或维持适当的工程;因此，每一个基本的缓解变得至关重要。为了说明这一点， 图6示出在工件上的收敛点的表面的图（表示为峰-谷?...

在一个典型的光学制造工艺的主要步骤包括整形，打磨，全口径抛光，有时小工具抛光1-3。凭借高品质的光学元件的需求成像和激光系统不断增加，出现了光学加工显著的进步在过去的几十年。例如，精密，确定性材料去除现在可以塑造和打磨工艺，在计算机数字控制的进步（CNC）玻璃成型机中。同样地，小工具抛光技术（ 例如 ，计算机控制光学表面（CCOS），离子辩别，而磁流变精加工（MRF）），导致确定性材料去除和表面形状控制，从而强烈地影响光学制造工业。然而，在整理过程中，全口径抛光的中间步骤，仍然缺乏确定性较高，通常需要熟练的opticiaNS开展多个，长常，迭代周期，多工艺变化，实现对所需的表面图1-3。 大量的研磨方法中，过程变量，以及复杂的化学和工件，搭接和浆料3-4之间的机械相互作用作出它具有挑战性的，从一个"艺术"到科学变换光学研磨。为了实现确定性全口径抛光，该材料去除速率，必须很好地理解。从历史上看，材料去除速率已经描述了广泛的应用普雷斯顿公式5 <img alt="式（1）" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" width="100px" /> （1） 其中，DH / dt是平均厚度去除率，K p是普雷斯顿恒定的，σO被所施加的压力，而V r是在工件和研具之间的平均相对速度。 图1示意性地示出了如所描述的普雷斯顿公式，包括在速度的空间和时间的变化和压力，之间的差别影响的材料去除速率的物理概念施加的压力和压力分布工件经历，和摩擦效应6-8。具体地，经历了由工件的实际压力分布由一些现象强烈影响所得工件的表面图（在别处详细描述的6-8）的约束。另外，在普雷斯顿公式，微观和分子水平的影响在很大程度上折叠成宏观普雷斯顿常数（k p）的 ，这影响了整体材料去除率，微观粗糙度，甚至刮伤工件上。各种研究已扩大普雷斯顿的模型来解释<html>对于微观粒子的浆垫，工件的相互作用来解释材料去除率和微粗糙度9-16。 为了实现表面图的过程中充分孔径抛光确定性控制中，每个上述的现象，需要理解，量化，然后进行控制。后面收敛抛光的策略是消除或最小化的材料去除不均匀的不良的原因，无论是通过工程化抛光的设计或通过过程控制，使得去除仅驱动由工件-研具失配由于工件形状7,17- 18。 图2说明了如何根据工件-研具失配的概念工件形状可导致收敛。考虑一台一圈，并在左上方显示复杂形状的工件的假设。该接口高度不匹配（称为间隙，ΔHOL）影响界面压力分布（σ）为: 内容"FO:保持together.within页="总是"&gt; <img alt="公式2" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" width="100px" /> （2） 其中，h是常数，描述的速率将压力下降的增加间隙的ΔhOL 6。在这个例子中，工件具有在中心的最高局部压力（参见图2的左下角），因此这个位置将抛光期间观察的最高初始材料去除速率。作为材料被去除，横跨工件的压力差会减小，由于在工件 - 研具失配的降低，工件会收敛到搭接的形状。在收敛时，工件的压力分布，并且因此材料去除，将横跨该工件均匀（参照图2右侧的）。这个例子说明了一个平面搭接，howev呃同样的概念适用于一个球形棉卷（凹或凸）。同样，如果所有影响空间的材料的不均匀等现象已经消除了这种融合的过程才有效。在收敛抛光协议实施的具体程序和工程缓解在讨论中描述。 在以下研究中所描述的协议是收敛的抛光过程专门为26.5平方厘米的熔融石英玻璃工件从细地面开始。在8小时内抛光的（4小时/面），此工件可达到〜λ/ 2的抛光平坦度非常高的表面质量（ 即低刮密度）。

<table><tbody><tr><td>MHN 50 mil Polyurethane Pad&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Eminess Technologies</td><td>PF-MHN15A050L-56</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cerium oxide polishing slurry</td><td>Universal Photonics</td><td>HASTILITE PO</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Septum Glass (waterjet cut)</td><td>Borofloat ; Schott&amp;nbsp;</td><td>NA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Diamond conditioner</td><td>Morgan Advanced Ceramics&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CMP-25035-SFT</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ultrasonic Cleaner</td><td>Advanced Sonics Processing System</td><td>URC4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Purification Optima Filter cartridge</td><td>3M</td><td>CMP560P10FC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blocking Pitch</td><td>Universal Photonics</td><td>BP1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blocking Tape</td><td>3M</td><td>#4712</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cleanroom Cloth</td><td>ITW Texwipe</td><td>AlphaWipe TX1013</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Single Particle Optical Sensing</td><td>Paritcle Sizing Systems</td><td>Accusizer 780 AD</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

convergent polishing: a simple, rapid, full aperture polishing process of high quality optical flats &amp; spheres

会聚抛光是一种新颖的抛光系统及方法用于精加工平面和球形玻璃光学其中一个工件，独立于它的初始形状（ 即表面图），将收敛到最终表面的数字与下一个固定的，不变的一组良好的表面质量在单个抛光迭代抛光参数。与此相反，常规的全口径抛光方法需要多个常长，涉及抛光，计量和工艺变化以获得所需的表面图的迭代循环。的收敛抛光过程是基于工件 - 研具失配的高度造成的压力差，与去除并导致工件会聚到搭接的形状减小的概念。成功地执行收敛抛光处理的是若干的技术的结合的结果，以除去非均匀的空间的材料去除（所有来源除了工件 - 研具失配）为表面图形收敛性和减少在系统中为低刮密度和低粗糙度流氓颗粒的数目。的收敛抛光过程已被证明为单位和各种形状，尺寸的球体，以及各种玻璃材料的长宽比的制造。的实际影响是，高品质的光学元件，可以更快速地制造，更多次，以较少的计量，并以更少的劳动，从而降低了单位成本。在这项研究中，收敛抛光协议是专门用于制造26.5厘米正方形熔融二氧化硅单位从细地面表面到抛光〜λ/ 2的表面图抛光表面每4小时就A 81厘米直径的抛光后说明。

的收敛抛光协议上述允许地面熔融二氧化硅的工件（在此情况下26.5厘米见方）待抛光，以每面4小时的单次迭代，以的峰 - 谷平坦度〜λ/ 2（〜 330纳米）为低纵横比的工件和〜1λ（〜633纳米），用于高纵横比的工件（ 见图3）。再次，此过程反复收敛工件至相同的最终面形，而无需改变抛光参数，它独立于初始表面身影。另外，〜4微米/小时的高工件平均去除率一律取得使用上述条件?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres at JoVE.com

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

A novel optical polishing process, called &#8220;Convergent Polishing&#8221;, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

收敛抛光:高品质光学平面与球的一种简单，快速，全口径抛光工艺

Convergent Polishing is a novel polishing system and method for finishing flat and spherical glass optics in which a workpiece, independent of its initial ...

convergent-polishing-simple-rapid-full-aperture-polishing-process

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats &amp; Spheres

11.0K 次观看.  Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. A novel optical polishing process, called “Convergent Polishing”, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

视频: Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

硅胶超高品质因子微谐振器的制造

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

科研

工程学

Development of Whispering Gallery Mode Polymeric Micro-optical Electric Field Sensors

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The optical modes are frequently referred to as "whispering gallery modes" (WGM) or "morphology dependent resonances" (MDR) and exhibit high optical quality factors. Some proposed applications of micro-cavity optical resonators are in spectroscopy1, micro-cavity laser technology2, optical communications3-6 as well as sensor technology. The WGM-based sensor applications include those in biology7, trace gas detection8, and impurity detection in liquids9. Mechanical sensors based on microsphere resonators have also been proposed, including those for force10,11, pressure12, acceleration13 and wall shear stress14. In the present, we demonstrate a WGM-based electric field sensor, which builds on our previous studies15,16. A candidate application of this sensor is in the detection of neuronal action potential.
The electric field sensor is based on polymeric multi-layered dielectric microspheres. The external electric field induces surface and body forces on the spheres (electrostriction effect) leading to elastic deformation. This change in the morphology of the spheres, leads to shifts in the WGM. The electric field-induced WGM shifts are interrogated by exciting the optical modes of the spheres by laser light. Light from a distributed feedback (DFB) laser (nominal wavelength of ~ 1.3 &mu;m) is side-coupled into the microspheres using a tapered section of a single mode optical fiber. The base material of the spheres is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Three microsphere geometries are used: (1) PDMS sphere with a 60:1 volumetric ratio of base-to-curing agent mixture, (2) multi layer sphere with 60:1 PDMS core, in order to increase the dielectric constant of the sphere, a middle layer of 60:1 PDMS that is mixed with varying amounts (2% to 10% by volume) of barium titanate and an outer layer of 60:1 PDMS and (3) solid silica sphere coated with a thin layer of uncured PDMS base. In each type of sensor, laser light from the tapered fiber is coupled into the outermost layer that provides high optical quality factor WGM (Q ~ 106). The microspheres are poled for several hours at electric fields of ~ 1 MV/m to increase their sensitivity to electric field.

A high-sensitivity photonic micro sensor was developed for electric field detection. The sensor exploits the optical modes of a dielectric sphere. Changes in the external electric field perturb the sphere morphology leading to shifts in its optical modes. The electric field strength is measured by monitoring these optical shifts.

回音壁模式聚合物微光学电场传感器的发展

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The ...

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various areas of technology and applied science, such as aerospace and communication engineering, sensing, metrology, nonlinear photonics, and quantum optics. In this article, we present the principal techniques used in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators. First detailed in this article is the protocol for resonator polishing, which is based on a grind-and-polish technique close to the ones used to polish optical components such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Then, a white light interferometric profilometer measures surface roughness, which is a key parameter to characterize the quality of the polishing. In order to launch light in the resonator, a tapered silica fiber with diameter in the micrometer range is used. To reach such small diameters, we adopt the "flame-brushing" technique, using simultaneously computer-controlled motors to pull the fiber apart, and a blowtorch to heat the fiber area to be tapered. The resonator and the tapered fiber are later approached to one another to visualize the resonance signal of the whispering gallery modes using a wavelength-scanning laser. By increasing the optical power in the resonator, nonlinear phenomena are triggered until the formation of a Kerr optical frequency comb is observed with a spectrum made of equidistant spectral lines. These Kerr comb spectra have exceptional characteristics that are suitable for several applications in science and technology. We consider the application related to ultra-stable microwave frequency synthesis and demonstrate the generation of a Kerr comb with GHz intermodal frequency.

The customized techniques developed in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators are presented. The protocols to obtain and characterize these resonators are detailed, and an explanation of some of their applications in microwave photonics is given.

基于微波光子系统回音壁模式谐振器

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

The Generation of Higher-order Laguerre-Gauss Optical Beams for High-precision Interferometry

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the standard quantum limit or to cool mechanical systems to their quantum ground state. This is for example the case of future gravitational wave observatories, whose sensitivity to gravitational wave signals is expected to be limited in the most sensitive frequency band, by atomic vibration of their mirror masses. One promising approach being pursued to overcome this limitation is to employ higher-order Laguerre-Gauss (LG) optical beams in place of the conventionally used fundamental mode. Owing to their more homogeneous light intensity distribution these beams average more effectively over the thermally driven fluctuations of the mirror surface, which in turn reduces the uncertainty in the mirror position sensed by the laser light.
We demonstrate a promising method to generate higher-order LG beams by shaping a fundamental Gaussian beam with the help of diffractive optical elements. We show that with conventional sensing and control techniques that are known for stabilizing fundamental laser beams, higher-order LG modes can be purified and stabilized just as well at a comparably high level. A set of diagnostic tools allows us to control and tailor the properties of generated LG beams. This enabled us to produce an LG beam with the highest purity reported to date. The demonstrated compatibility of higher-order LG modes with standard interferometry techniques and with the use of standard spherical optics makes them an ideal candidate for application in a future generation of high-precision interferometry.

Large laser-interferometers are being constructed to create a new type of astronomy based on gravitational waves. Their sensitivities, as for many other high-precision experiments, are approaching fundamental noise limits such as the atomic vibration of their components. We are pioneering technologies to overcome these limits using novel laser beam shapes.

代高阶拉盖尔 - 高斯光束的高精度干涉

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several  types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the  ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed polymer optical fiber is composed of 80,000 strands of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) that are randomly mixed and drawn into a square cross section optical fiber with a side width of 250 &mu;m. Initially, each strand is 200 &mu;m in diameter and 8-inches long. During the mixing process of the original fiber strands, the fibers cross over each other; however, a large draw ratio guarantees that the refractive index profile is invariant along the length of the fiber for several tens of centimeters. The large refractive index difference of 0.1 between the disordered sites results in a small localized beam radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers. The input light is launched from a standard single mode optical fiber using the butt-coupling method and the near-field output beam from the disordered fiber is imaged using a 40X objective and a CCD camera. The output beam diameter agrees well with the expected results from the numerical simulations. The disordered optical fiber presented in this work is the first device-level implementation of 2D Anderson localization, and can potentially be used for image transport and short-haul optical communication systems.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. This microstructured fiber can transport a small localized beam with a radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers.

无序横向安德森本地化光聚合物光纤的制备和表征

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed ...

Stimulated Stokes and Antistokes Raman Scattering in Microspherical Whispering Gallery Mode Resonators

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres can be thought as a store of energy with a huge variety of applications: compact laser sources, highly sensitive biochemical sensors and nonlinear phenomena. A protocol for the fabrication of both the microspheres and coupling system is given. The couplers described here are tapered fibers. Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS). A proof of the cavity-enhanced phenomenon is given by the lack of correlation among the pump, signal and idler: a resonant mode has to exist in order to obtain the pair of signal and idler. In the case of hyperparametric oscillations (four wave mixing and stimulated anti-stokes Raman scattering), the modes must fulfill the energy and momentum conservation and, last but not least, have a good spatial overlap.

Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS).

刺激斯托克斯和反斯托克斯拉曼散射在微球形回音壁模式谐振器

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres ...

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, interface precipitation, and mini-emulsion. In all methods, well-defined, micrometer-sized spheres are obtained from a self-assembling process in solution. The vapor diffusion method can result in spheres with the highest sphericity and surface smoothness, yet the types of the polymers able to form these spheres are limited. On the other hand, in the mini-emulsion method, microspheres can be made from various types of polymers, even from highly crystalline polymers with coplanar, &#960;-conjugated backbones. The photoluminescent (PL) properties from single isolated microspheres are unusual: the PL is confined inside the spheres, propagates at the circumference of the spheres via the total internal reflection at the polymer/air interface, and self-interferes to show sharp and periodic resonant PL lines. These resonating modes are so-called "whispering gallery modes" (WGMs). This work demonstrates how to measure WGM PL from single isolated spheres using the micro-photoluminescence (&#181;-PL) technique. In this technique, a focused laser beam irradiates a single microsphere, and the luminescence is detected by a spectrometer. A micromanipulation technique is then used to connect the microspheres one by one and to demonstrate the intersphere PL propagation and color conversion from coupled microspheres upon excitation at the perimeter of one sphere and detection of PL from the other microsphere. These techniques, &#181;-PL and micromanipulation, are useful for experiments on micro-optic application using polymer materials.

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are presented.

用于光学谐振器和激光应用的聚合物微球的制造

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, ...

Demonstration of a Hyperlens-integrated Microscope and Super-resolution Imaging

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and nanotechnology. Although near-field scanning microscopy and superlenses have improved the resolution in the near-field region, far-field imaging in real-time remains a significant challenge. Recently, the hyperlens, which magnifies and converts evanescent waves into propagating waves, has emerged as a novel approach to far-field imaging. Here, we report the fabrication of a spherical hyperlens composed of alternating silver (Ag) and titanium oxide (TiO2) thin layers. Unlike a conventional cylindrical hyperlens, the spherical hyperlens allows for two-dimensional magnification. Thus, incorporation into conventional microscopy is straightforward. A new optical system integrated with the hyperlens is proposed, allowing for a sub-wavelength image to be obtained in the far-field region in real time. In this study, the fabrication and imaging setup methods are explained in detail. This work also describes the accessibility and possibility of the hyperlens, as well as practical applications of real-time imaging in living cells, which can lead to a revolution in biology and nanotechnology.

The use of a hyperlens has been regarded as a novel super-resolution imaging technique due to its advantages in real-time imaging and its simple implementation with conventional optics. Here, we present a protocol describing the fabrication and imaging applications of a spherical hyperlens.

Hyperlens 综合显微镜和超分辨率成像的演示

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and ...

Rapid Optical Clearing for Semi-High-Throughput Analysis of Tumor Spheroids

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the spheroid at the cellular level is important for analysis, yet existing techniques are often expensive, laborious, use non-standard equipment, cause significant size distortion, or are limited to relatively small spheroids. This protocol presents a new method of mounting and clearing spheroids that address these issues while allowing for confocal analysis of the inner structure of spheroids. In contrast to existing approaches, this protocol provides for rapid mounting and clearing of a large number of spheroids using standard equipment and laboratory supplies. Mounting spheroids in a pH-neutral agarose-PBS gel solution before introducing a refractive-index-matched clearing solution minimizes size distortion common to other similar techniques. This allows for detailed quantitative and statistical analysis where the accuracy of size measurements is paramount. Furthermore, compared to liquid clearing solutions, the agarose gel technique keeps spheroids fixed in place, allowing for the collection of three-dimensional (3D) confocal images. The present article elaborates how the method yields high-quality two- and 3D images that provide information about inter-cell variability and inner spheroid structure.

Tumor spheroids are becoming increasingly utilized to assess tumor cell-microenvironment interactions and therapy response. The present protocol describes a robust but simple method for semi-high-throughput imaging of 3D tumor spheroids using rapid optical clearing.

用于肿瘤球体半高通量分析的快速光学清除

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the ...

癌症研究

法布里-珀罗标准具的制备在痕量气体光谱中的应用

Fabrication of a Low-Cost, Fiber-Coupled, and Air-Spaced Fabry-P&#233;rot Etalon

Fabry-P&#233;rot etalons (FPE) have found their way into many applications. In fields such as spectroscopy, telecommunications, and astronomy, FPEs are used for their high sensitivity as well as their exceptional filtering capability. However, air-spaced etalons with high finesse are usually built by specialized facilities. Their production requires a clean room, special glass handling, and coating machinery, meaning commercially available FPEs are sold for a high price. In this article, a new and cost-effective method to fabricate fiber-coupled FPEs with standard photonic laboratory equipment is presented. The protocol should serve as a step-by-step guide for the construction and characterization of these FPEs. We hope this&#160;will enable researchers to conduct fast and cost-effective prototyping of FPEs for various fields of application. The FPE, as presented here, is used for spectroscopic applications. As shown in the representative results section via proof of principle measurements of water vapor in ambient air, this FPE has a finesse of 15, which is sufficient for the photothermal detection of trace concentrations of gases.

作者聚焦：低成本、光纤耦合和空气间隔法布里-佩罗标准具的制造  

This protocol describes the construction of a low-cost, discrete, fiber-coupled, and air-spaced Fabry-Perot etalon with various applications, such as in trace-gas spectroscopy. The fabrication is possible in any facility with standard optical laboratory equipment available.

制造低成本、光纤耦合和空气间隔的法布里-佩罗标准具

Fabry-P&#233;rot etalons (FPE) have found their way into many applications. In fields such as spectroscopy, telecommunications, and astronomy, FPEs are ...