This work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 within the LDRD program.

1. Preparation of Polisher and Slurry
First prepare the Convergent Polishing System (specifically called Convergent, Initial Surface Independent, Single Iteration, Rogue Particle-Free Polisher or CISR (pronounced &#8216;scissor&#8217;))7,17 by installing the pad &#38; septum, conditioning the pad, diluting &#38; chemically stabilizing the slurry, and incorporating the slurry within the filtration system.
<ol>
	<li>On the CISR polisher, adhere a polyurethane pad onto the granite lap base. Adhere pad one edge first and apply pressure in the direction towards the opposing edge to minimize air gaps. Trim the overhanging pad and then use a razor blade and roller to puncture and remove air bubbles if necessary.</li>
	<li>For first time use and after every ~100 hr of polishing, diamond condition the pad using a CMP diamond conditioner (50 mm diameter; 0.6 psi applied pressure; 5 min dwell at each radial lap location with 25 mm spacing increments; lap rotation 25 rpm) with flowing DI water.</li>
	<li>Between polishing iterations, remove any residual slurry and glass products from the pad using an in-situ ultrasonic cleaner (~2 min dwell at each radial location; lap rotation 5 rpm) with flowing DI water.</li>
	<li>On the uniquely shaped septum weight, adhere double sided foam tape and then the septum material (e.g., pre-cut glass or other non-wearing material). Trim any overhanging foam tape to match the shape of the septum material and weight. Note the septum design (both shape and weight) changes for different sizes of the workpiece and lap7,17.</li>
	<li>Prepare polishing slurry to Baume 4 concentration (specifically mix by volume ~1 part cerium oxide polishing slurry and ~9 parts deionized (DI) water in a 11 L bucket). Check Baume using a Baume float. Add ~5 ml of KOH (10 M) to adjust pH to 9.5 and add ~120 ml (1 vol%) of proprietary surfactant19. Readjust pH and Baume every 24 hr of polishing.</li>
	<li>Install bucket with the prepared slurry into filtration system. Then install the desired CMP particle filters into filtration system. Let slurry recirculate within filtration system for several hours.</li>
	<li>Measure particle size distribution of slurry (e.g., using single particle optical sensing techniques) to ensure the tail end of the distribution is adequately rogue particle-free9,20.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Workpiece (Etching and Blocking)
Before polishing, chemically etch the as-received fine ground workpiece to reduce the amount of material removal needed to remove the sub-surface grinding damage21. Then, block the workpiece (if the aspect ratio (i.e., length/thickness) is &#62;10) using a novel pitch button blocking (PBB) technique to prevent the workpiece from bending during blocking and polishing22.
<ol>
	<li>Etch the fine ground workpiece (specifically a 265 x 265 x 8 mm3 fused silica glass flat) in a tank filled with HF:NH4F (6:1 buffered oxide etch (BOE) 3x diluted with DI water) for 6 hr removing 10 &#181;m of glass from surface of workpiece. CAUTION! BOE is extremely hazardous; wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) . Remove workpiece from etch tank and aggressively rinse the workpiece with DI water and allow the workpiece to air dry vertically.</li>
	<li>Inspect the workpiece for deep damage during the grinding process using a bright light inspection in a dark room. If no deep damage is found, proceed to the next step, else send workpiece back for re-grinding.</li>
	<li>Heat up blocking pitch in a glue gun to ~95 &#186;C and place droplets (also called buttons) of pitch (~0.06 g) onto the face of the blocking plate in a 9 x 9 array (81 buttons with 26 mm spacing). For different size workpieces, refer to design rules for the ideal number, size, and spacings of pitch button22. Place the blocking plate with the applied buttons face up in a pre-heated oven at 70 &#186;C.</li>
	<li>Apply tape to the face of the workpiece that is not to be polished. Avoid generating air bubbles or excessively stretching the tape.</li>
	<li>Place the workpiece with tape side face down onto buttons on the blocking plate in the oven. Cover the workpiece-button-block to minimize convective flow. After 1.5 hr, set oven to cool 10 &#186;C/hr to room temperature. After cooling, the pitch thickness on the blocked workpiece should be ~1 mm.</li>
</ol>
3. Convergent Polishing
<ol>
	<li>Turn on humidity system in environmental chamber of CISR polisher to prevent slurry from drying during polishing and to minimize rogue particles scratching the workpiece.</li>
	<li>Install and mount the specifically designed and prepared septum into polisher. Install PBB workpiece into CISR polisher and lower boom to hold the workpiece.</li>
	<li>Polish workpiece on CISR for 4 hr at a matched lap and workpiece rotation rate of 25 rpm with a radial stroke of ~75 mm and with a slurry flow from filtration system of 1 gal/min. 
	NOTE: The blocking plate also serves as the loading weight on the workpiece corresponding to 0.6 psi applied pressure.</li>
	<li>Turn off lap and workpiece rotation and slurry flow. Remove PBB workpiece from CISR polisher and submerse it into DI water filled bath. Wipe workpiece surface with cleanroom cloth while submerged. Remove PBB workpiece from bath and spray rinse with DI water.</li>
	<li>Deblock workpiece by inserting a shim at workpiece-block interface. Remove tape from workpiece surface. Aggressively rinse workpiece with DI water and air dry.</li>
	<li>PBB the opposing face of the workpiece as described in Section 2. Then repeat polishing procedure as described in Section 3.</li>
</ol>
4. Metrology and Inspection
<ol>
	<li>Measure reflected wavefront (i.e., surface figure) of both sides of workpiece as well as transmitted wavefront using an interferometer.</li>
	<li>Mount workpiece on bright light inspection station and measure the scratch/dig properties using optical fabrication standard methods. A short BOE etch of the workpiece, as described in step 2.1, can be used to expose hidden scratches for workpieces used in high fluence laser applications. For measurement of fine scratches or roughness on the workpiece, standard optical microscopy or white light interferometry may be used.</li>
	<li>Store completed workpiece in a container minimizing contact with face of the workpiece.</li>
</ol>

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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+short+course+in+optical+fabrication+technology.">A short course in optical fabrication technology.</a> , (1981).</li><li>Cook, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemical+processes+in+glass+polishing.">Chemical processes in glass polishing.</a> J. Non-Crystal. Solids. 120, 152-171 (1990).</li><li>Preston, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Structure+of+Abraded+Glass+Surfaces.">The Structure of Abraded Glass Surfaces.</a> Trans. Opt. 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Solid State. 12 (6), 191-194 (2009).</li><li>Suratwala, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Method+and+system+for+Convergent+Polishing.">Method and system for Convergent Polishing.</a> US Provisional Patent Application. , (2011).</li><li>Suratwala, T., Feit, M., Steele, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Apparatus+and+Method+for+Deterministic+Control+of+Surface+Figure+During+Full+Aperture+Polishing.">Apparatus and Method for Deterministic Control of Surface Figure During Full Aperture Polishing.</a> US Patent Application. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

As discussed in the Introduction, successful implementation of Convergent Polishing with respect to surface figure involves eliminating or minimizing all the phenomena that influence spatial material non-uniformity except that of workpiece-lap mismatch due to workpiece shape. If any one of these phenomena is not appropriately mitigated, either through process control or through appropriate engineering of the polisher, then the desired convergence point cannot be achieved or maintained; hence essentially every mitigation ...

The major steps in a typical optical fabrication process include shaping, grinding, full aperture polishing, and sometimes small tool polishing1-3. With increasing demand for high quality optical components for imaging and laser systems, there have been significant advancements in optical fabrication over the last several decades. For example, precision, deterministic material removal is now possible during the shaping and grinding processes with advancements in Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) glass shaping machines. Similarly, small tool polishing technologies (e.g., computer controlled optical surfacing (CCOS), ion figuring, and magneto-rheological finishing (MRF)) have led to deterministic material removal and surface figure control, thus strongly impacting the optical fabrication industry. However, the intermediate step of the finishing process, full aperture polishing, still lacks high determinism, typically requiring skilled opticians to carry out multiple, often long, iterative cycles with multiple process changes to achieve to the desired surface figure1-3.
The large number of polishing methods, process variables, and the complex chemical and mechanical interactions between the workpiece, lap and slurry3-4 have made it challenging to transform optical polishing from an &#8216;art&#8217; to a science. To achieve deterministic full aperture polishing, the material removal rate must be well understood. Historically, material removal rate has been described by the widely used Preston equation5
<img alt="Equation 1" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn1.jpg" width="100px" />&#160;(1)
where dh/dt is the average thickness removal rate, kp is the Preston constant, &#963;o is the applied pressure, and Vr is the average relative velocity between the workpiece and the lap. Figure 1 schematically depicts the physical concepts that influence material removal rate as described the Preston Equation, including spatial and temporal variations in velocity and pressure, differences between the applied pressure and the pressure distribution that the workpiece experiences, and friction effects6-8. In particular, the actual pressure distribution experienced by the workpiece is governed by a number of phenomena (described in detail elsewhere6-8) which strongly affect resulting surface figure of the workpiece. Also, in the Preston Equation, the microscopic and molecular level effects are largely folded into the macroscopic Preston constant (kp), which influences the overall material removal rate, micro-roughness, and even scratching on the workpiece. Various studies have expanded Preston&#8217;s model to account for microscopic slurry particle-pad-workpiece interactions to explain material removal rate and microroughness9-16.
To achieve deterministic control of surface figure during full aperture polishing, each of the phenomena described above needs to be understood, quantified and then controlled. The strategy behind Convergent Polishing is to eliminate or minimize the undesirable causes of non-uniform material removal, either through engineered polisher design or by process control, such that removal is driven only by the workpiece-lap mismatch due to workpiece shape7,17-18. Figure 2 illustrates how workpiece shape can lead to convergence based on the workpiece-lap mismatch concept. Consider a flat lap and a hypothetical workpiece of complex shape shown at the top left. The interface height mismatch (referred to as the gap, &#916;hoL) influences the interface pressure distribution (&#963;) as:
<img alt="Equation 2" fo:content-width="1in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51965/51965eqn2.jpg" width="100px" />&#160;(2)
where h&#773; is a constant describing the rate at which the pressure declines with an increase in gap &#916;hoL6. In this example, the workpiece has the highest local pressure in the center (see bottom left of Figure 2), and hence this location will observe the highest initial material removal rate during polishing. As material is removed, the pressure differential across the workpiece will decrease due to a decrease in the workpiece-lap mismatch, and the workpiece will converge to the shape of the lap. At convergence, the workpiece pressure distribution, and hence material removal, will be uniform across the workpiece (see right side of Figure 2). This example is illustrated for a flat lap, however, the same concept applies for a spherical lap (either concave or convex). Again, this convergence process only works if all the other phenomena affecting spatial material non-uniformity have been eliminated. The specific procedural and engineering mitigations implemented in the Convergent Polishing protocol are described in the Discussion.
The protocol described in the following study is the Convergent Polishing process specifically for a 26.5 cm square fused silica glass workpiece starting from a fine ground surface. In 8 hours of polishing (4 hours/surface), this workpiece can achieve a polished flatness of ~&#955;/2 with very high surface quality (i.e., low scratch density).

<table><tbody><tr><td>MHN 50 mil Polyurethane Pad&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Eminess Technologies</td><td>PF-MHN15A050L-56</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cerium oxide polishing slurry</td><td>Universal Photonics</td><td>HASTILITE PO</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Septum Glass (waterjet cut)</td><td>Borofloat ; Schott&amp;nbsp;</td><td>NA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Diamond conditioner</td><td>Morgan Advanced Ceramics&amp;nbsp;</td><td>CMP-25035-SFT</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ultrasonic Cleaner</td><td>Advanced Sonics Processing System</td><td>URC4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Purification Optima Filter cartridge</td><td>3M</td><td>CMP560P10FC</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blocking Pitch</td><td>Universal Photonics</td><td>BP1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blocking Tape</td><td>3M</td><td>#4712</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cleanroom Cloth</td><td>ITW Texwipe</td><td>AlphaWipe TX1013</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Single Particle Optical Sensing</td><td>Paritcle Sizing Systems</td><td>Accusizer 780 AD</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

convergent polishing: a simple, rapid, full aperture polishing process of high quality optical flats &amp; spheres

Convergent Polishing is a novel polishing system and method for finishing flat and spherical glass optics in which a workpiece, independent of its initial shape (i.e., surface figure), will converge to final surface figure with excellent surface quality under a fixed, unchanging set of polishing parameters in a single polishing iteration. In contrast, conventional full aperture polishing methods require multiple, often long, iterative cycles involving polishing, metrology and process changes to achieve the desired surface figure. The Convergent Polishing process is based on the concept of workpiece-lap height mismatch resulting in pressure differential that decreases with removal and results in the workpiece converging to the shape of the lap. The successful implementation of the Convergent Polishing process is a result of the combination of a number of technologies to remove all sources of non-uniform spatial material removal (except for workpiece-lap mismatch) for surface figure convergence and to reduce the number of rogue particles in the system for low scratch densities and low roughness. The Convergent Polishing process has been demonstrated for the fabrication of both flats and spheres of various shapes, sizes, and aspect ratios on various glass materials. The practical impact is that high quality optical components can be fabricated more rapidly, more repeatedly, with less metrology, and with less labor, resulting in lower unit costs. In this study, the Convergent Polishing protocol is specifically described for fabricating 26.5 cm square fused silica flats from a fine ground surface to a polished ~&#955;/2 surface figure after polishing 4 hr per surface on a 81 cm diameter polisher.

The Convergent Polishing protocol described above allows a ground fused silica workpiece (in this case a 26.5 cm square) to be polished, in a single iteration of 4 hr per surface, to a peak-to-valley flatness of ~&#955;/2 (~330 nm) for low aspect ratio workpieces and ~1&#955; (~633 nm) for high aspect ratio workpieces (see Figure 3). Again, this process repeatedly converges workpieces to the same final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters and is independent of the initial surf...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres at JoVE.com

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

A novel optical polishing process, called &#8220;Convergent Polishing&#8221;, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats &amp; Spheres

Convergent Polishing is a novel polishing system and method for finishing flat and spherical glass optics in which a workpiece, independent of its initial ...

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Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

11.0K Views.  Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. A novel optical polishing process, called “Convergent Polishing”, which enables faster, lower cost polishing, is described. Unlike conventional polishing processes, Convergent Polishing allows a glass workpiece to be polished in a single iteration and with high surface quality to its final surface figure without requiring changes to polishing parameters.

Video: Convergent Polishing: A Simple, Rapid, Full Aperture Polishing Process of High Quality Optical Flats & Spheres

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

Development of Whispering Gallery Mode Polymeric Micro-optical Electric Field Sensors

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The optical modes are frequently referred to as "whispering gallery modes" (WGM) or "morphology dependent resonances" (MDR) and exhibit high optical quality factors. Some proposed applications of micro-cavity optical resonators are in spectroscopy1, micro-cavity laser technology2, optical communications3-6 as well as sensor technology. The WGM-based sensor applications include those in biology7, trace gas detection8, and impurity detection in liquids9. Mechanical sensors based on microsphere resonators have also been proposed, including those for force10,11, pressure12, acceleration13 and wall shear stress14. In the present, we demonstrate a WGM-based electric field sensor, which builds on our previous studies15,16. A candidate application of this sensor is in the detection of neuronal action potential.
The electric field sensor is based on polymeric multi-layered dielectric microspheres. The external electric field induces surface and body forces on the spheres (electrostriction effect) leading to elastic deformation. This change in the morphology of the spheres, leads to shifts in the WGM. The electric field-induced WGM shifts are interrogated by exciting the optical modes of the spheres by laser light. Light from a distributed feedback (DFB) laser (nominal wavelength of ~ 1.3 &mu;m) is side-coupled into the microspheres using a tapered section of a single mode optical fiber. The base material of the spheres is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Three microsphere geometries are used: (1) PDMS sphere with a 60:1 volumetric ratio of base-to-curing agent mixture, (2) multi layer sphere with 60:1 PDMS core, in order to increase the dielectric constant of the sphere, a middle layer of 60:1 PDMS that is mixed with varying amounts (2% to 10% by volume) of barium titanate and an outer layer of 60:1 PDMS and (3) solid silica sphere coated with a thin layer of uncured PDMS base. In each type of sensor, laser light from the tapered fiber is coupled into the outermost layer that provides high optical quality factor WGM (Q ~ 106). The microspheres are poled for several hours at electric fields of ~ 1 MV/m to increase their sensitivity to electric field.

A high-sensitivity photonic micro sensor was developed for electric field detection. The sensor exploits the optical modes of a dielectric sphere. Changes in the external electric field perturb the sphere morphology leading to shifts in its optical modes. The electric field strength is measured by monitoring these optical shifts.

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The ...

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various areas of technology and applied science, such as aerospace and communication engineering, sensing, metrology, nonlinear photonics, and quantum optics. In this article, we present the principal techniques used in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators. First detailed in this article is the protocol for resonator polishing, which is based on a grind-and-polish technique close to the ones used to polish optical components such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Then, a white light interferometric profilometer measures surface roughness, which is a key parameter to characterize the quality of the polishing. In order to launch light in the resonator, a tapered silica fiber with diameter in the micrometer range is used. To reach such small diameters, we adopt the "flame-brushing" technique, using simultaneously computer-controlled motors to pull the fiber apart, and a blowtorch to heat the fiber area to be tapered. The resonator and the tapered fiber are later approached to one another to visualize the resonance signal of the whispering gallery modes using a wavelength-scanning laser. By increasing the optical power in the resonator, nonlinear phenomena are triggered until the formation of a Kerr optical frequency comb is observed with a spectrum made of equidistant spectral lines. These Kerr comb spectra have exceptional characteristics that are suitable for several applications in science and technology. We consider the application related to ultra-stable microwave frequency synthesis and demonstrate the generation of a Kerr comb with GHz intermodal frequency.

The customized techniques developed in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators are presented. The protocols to obtain and characterize these resonators are detailed, and an explanation of some of their applications in microwave photonics is given.

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

The Generation of Higher-order Laguerre-Gauss Optical Beams for High-precision Interferometry

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the standard quantum limit or to cool mechanical systems to their quantum ground state. This is for example the case of future gravitational wave observatories, whose sensitivity to gravitational wave signals is expected to be limited in the most sensitive frequency band, by atomic vibration of their mirror masses. One promising approach being pursued to overcome this limitation is to employ higher-order Laguerre-Gauss (LG) optical beams in place of the conventionally used fundamental mode. Owing to their more homogeneous light intensity distribution these beams average more effectively over the thermally driven fluctuations of the mirror surface, which in turn reduces the uncertainty in the mirror position sensed by the laser light.
We demonstrate a promising method to generate higher-order LG beams by shaping a fundamental Gaussian beam with the help of diffractive optical elements. We show that with conventional sensing and control techniques that are known for stabilizing fundamental laser beams, higher-order LG modes can be purified and stabilized just as well at a comparably high level. A set of diagnostic tools allows us to control and tailor the properties of generated LG beams. This enabled us to produce an LG beam with the highest purity reported to date. The demonstrated compatibility of higher-order LG modes with standard interferometry techniques and with the use of standard spherical optics makes them an ideal candidate for application in a future generation of high-precision interferometry.

Large laser-interferometers are being constructed to create a new type of astronomy based on gravitational waves. Their sensitivities, as for many other high-precision experiments, are approaching fundamental noise limits such as the atomic vibration of their components. We are pioneering technologies to overcome these limits using novel laser beam shapes.

Thermal noise in high-reflectivity mirrors is a major impediment for several  types of high-precision interferometric experiments that aim to reach the  ...

High-speed Continuous-wave Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Spectrometer for Material Analysis

Recent years have witnessed a significant increase in the use of spontaneous Brillouin spectrometers for non-contact analysis of soft matter, such as aqueous solutions and biomaterials, with fast acquisition times. Here, we discuss the assembly and operation of a Brillouin spectrometer that uses stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) to measure stimulated Brillouin gain (SBG) spectra of water and lipid emulsion-based tissue-like samples in transmission mode with &lt;10 MHz spectral-resolution and &lt;35 MHz Brillouin-shift measurement precision at &lt;100 ms. The spectrometer consists of two nearly counter-propagating continuous-wave (CW) narrow-linewidth lasers at 780 nm whose frequency detuning is scanned through the material Brillouin shift. By using an ultra-narrowband hot rubidium-85 vapor notch filter and a phase-sensitive detector, the signal-to-noise-ratio of the SBG signal is significantly enhanced compared to that obtained with existing CW-SBS spectrometers. This improvement enables measurement of SBG spectra with up to 100-fold faster acquisition times, thereby facilitating high spectral-resolution and high-precision Brillouin analysis of soft materials at high speed.

We describe the construction of a rapid continuous-wave-stimulated-Brillouin-scattering (CW-SBS) spectrometer. The spectrometer employs single-frequency diode-lasers and an atomic vapor notch-filter to acquire transmission spectra of turbid/non-turbid samples with high spectral-resolution at speeds up to 100-fold faster than those of existing CW-SBS spectrometers. This improvement enables high-speed Brillouin material analysis.

Recent years have witnessed a significant increase in the use of spontaneous Brillouin spectrometers for non-contact analysis of soft matter, such as ...

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, interface precipitation, and mini-emulsion. In all methods, well-defined, micrometer-sized spheres are obtained from a self-assembling process in solution. The vapor diffusion method can result in spheres with the highest sphericity and surface smoothness, yet the types of the polymers able to form these spheres are limited. On the other hand, in the mini-emulsion method, microspheres can be made from various types of polymers, even from highly crystalline polymers with coplanar, &#960;-conjugated backbones. The photoluminescent (PL) properties from single isolated microspheres are unusual: the PL is confined inside the spheres, propagates at the circumference of the spheres via the total internal reflection at the polymer/air interface, and self-interferes to show sharp and periodic resonant PL lines. These resonating modes are so-called "whispering gallery modes" (WGMs). This work demonstrates how to measure WGM PL from single isolated spheres using the micro-photoluminescence (&#181;-PL) technique. In this technique, a focused laser beam irradiates a single microsphere, and the luminescence is detected by a spectrometer. A micromanipulation technique is then used to connect the microspheres one by one and to demonstrate the intersphere PL propagation and color conversion from coupled microspheres upon excitation at the perimeter of one sphere and detection of PL from the other microsphere. These techniques, &#181;-PL and micromanipulation, are useful for experiments on micro-optic application using polymer materials.

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are presented.

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, ...

Demonstration of a Hyperlens-integrated Microscope and Super-resolution Imaging

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and nanotechnology. Although near-field scanning microscopy and superlenses have improved the resolution in the near-field region, far-field imaging in real-time remains a significant challenge. Recently, the hyperlens, which magnifies and converts evanescent waves into propagating waves, has emerged as a novel approach to far-field imaging. Here, we report the fabrication of a spherical hyperlens composed of alternating silver (Ag) and titanium oxide (TiO2) thin layers. Unlike a conventional cylindrical hyperlens, the spherical hyperlens allows for two-dimensional magnification. Thus, incorporation into conventional microscopy is straightforward. A new optical system integrated with the hyperlens is proposed, allowing for a sub-wavelength image to be obtained in the far-field region in real time. In this study, the fabrication and imaging setup methods are explained in detail. This work also describes the accessibility and possibility of the hyperlens, as well as practical applications of real-time imaging in living cells, which can lead to a revolution in biology and nanotechnology.

The use of a hyperlens has been regarded as a novel super-resolution imaging technique due to its advantages in real-time imaging and its simple implementation with conventional optics. Here, we present a protocol describing the fabrication and imaging applications of a spherical hyperlens.

The use of super-resolution imaging to overcome the diffraction limit of conventional microscopy has attracted the interest of researchers in biology and ...

Rapid Optical Clearing for Semi-High-Throughput Analysis of Tumor Spheroids

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the spheroid at the cellular level is important for analysis, yet existing techniques are often expensive, laborious, use non-standard equipment, cause significant size distortion, or are limited to relatively small spheroids. This protocol presents a new method of mounting and clearing spheroids that address these issues while allowing for confocal analysis of the inner structure of spheroids. In contrast to existing approaches, this protocol provides for rapid mounting and clearing of a large number of spheroids using standard equipment and laboratory supplies. Mounting spheroids in a pH-neutral agarose-PBS gel solution before introducing a refractive-index-matched clearing solution minimizes size distortion common to other similar techniques. This allows for detailed quantitative and statistical analysis where the accuracy of size measurements is paramount. Furthermore, compared to liquid clearing solutions, the agarose gel technique keeps spheroids fixed in place, allowing for the collection of three-dimensional (3D) confocal images. The present article elaborates how the method yields high-quality two- and 3D images that provide information about inter-cell variability and inner spheroid structure.

Tumor spheroids are becoming increasingly utilized to assess tumor cell-microenvironment interactions and therapy response. The present protocol describes a robust but simple method for semi-high-throughput imaging of 3D tumor spheroids using rapid optical clearing.

Tumor spheroids are fast becoming commonplace in basic cancer research and drug development. Obtaining data regarding protein expression within the ...

Cancer Research

Plasma Polishing as a New Polishing Option to Reduce the Surface Roughness of Porous Titanium Alloy for 3D Printing

Porous titanium alloy implants with simulated trabecular bone fabricated by 3D printing technology have broad prospects. However, due to the fact that some powder adheres to the surface of the workpiece during the manufacturing process, the surface roughness in direct printing pieces is relatively high. At the same time, since the internal pores of the porous structure cannot be polished by conventional mechanical polishing, an alternative method needs to be found. As a surface technology, plasma polishing technology is especially suitable for parts with complex shapes that are difficult to polish mechanically. It can effectively remove particles and fine splash residues attached to the surface of 3D printed porous titanium alloy workpieces. Therefore, it can reduce surface roughness. Firstly, titanium alloy powder is used to print the porous structure of the simulated trabecular bone with a metal 3D printer. After printing, heat treatment, removal of the supporting structure, and ultrasonic cleaning is carried out. Then, plasma polishing is performed, consisting of adding a polishing electrolyte with the pH set to 5.7, preheating the machine to 101.6 &#176;C, fixing the workpiece on the polishing fixture, and setting the voltage (313 V), current (59 A), and polishing time (3 min). After polishing, the surface of the porous titanium alloy workpiece is analyzed by a confocal microscope, and the surface roughness is measured. Scanning electron microscopy is used to characterize the surface condition of porous titanium. The results show that the surface roughness of the whole porous titanium alloy workpiece changed from Ra (average roughness) = 126.9 &#181;m to Ra = 56.28 &#181;m, and the surface roughness of the trabecular structure changed from Ra = 42.61 &#181;m to Ra = 26.25 &#181;m. Meanwhile, semi-molten powders and ablative oxide layers are removed, and surface quality is improved.

Plasma polishing is a promising surface processing technology, especially suitable for 3D printing of porous titanium alloy workpieces. It can remove semi-molten powders and ablative oxide layers, thereby effectively reducing surface roughness and improving surface quality.

Porous titanium alloy implants with simulated trabecular bone fabricated by 3D printing technology have broad prospects. However, due to the fact that ...

Medicine

Impact of Fabrication Techniques and Polishing Procedures on Surface Roughness of Denture Base Resins

This study aimed to assess the impact of various fabrication techniques and polishing procedures on the surface roughness (Ra) of resin-based materials used in the fabrication of complete dentures. A total of 90 specimens were produced from three different resin materials: heat-polymerized polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) resin, CAD-CAM milled PMMA resin, and 3D-printed resin (n = 30). Each specimen measured 10 mm in diameter and 2 mm in height. The surface roughness (Ra) values of the specimens were initially determined using a contact profilometer following fabrication. Subsequently, each group of specimens was polished with 600-, 800-, and 1000-grit silicon carbide abrasive papers under running water. A second measurement of the surface roughness (Ra) values was then performed. The data were analyzed statistically using the Kruskal-Wallis test, Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and paired samples t-test (p = 0.05). A statistically significant difference was identified between the groups in terms of surface roughness (Ra) prior to the polishing process (p &#60; 0.001). However, no statistically significant difference was observed between the milled and heat-polymerized PMMA base materials following the polishing process. The 3D-printed specimens showed the most notable improvement in surface roughness due to the polishing process. Nevertheless, their surface roughness remained statistically significantly higher compared to the other samples, both before and after polishing (p &#60; 0.001). The fabrication method of complete denture base materials was observed to influence surface roughness. The surface roughness values of the base materials fabricated using the 3D printing method were higher compared to those fabricated with milled and heat-polymerized PMMA resin, both before and after polishing.

This article presents a protocol to evaluate the effects of different manufacturing methods (heat-polymerized PMMA, CAD-CAM milled PMMA, and 3D-printed resin) and polishing techniques (600, 800, and 1000 grit silicon carbide abrasive papers) on the surface roughness (Ra) of resin base materials used for complete dentures.

This study aimed to assess the impact of various fabrication techniques and polishing procedures on the surface roughness (Ra) of resin-based materials ...