This research was supported by the Gottfried Wilhelm-Leibniz Grant from the German Research Foundation (DFG) awarded to Thomas Mussweiler.

The following methods were all tested in the laboratory of the University of Cologne, in which humans (students) voluntarily participate. In line with the ethical guidelines published by the American Psychological Association and the general rules of institutional review boards for ethical issues, all participants were informed in advance about the nature of the study (i.e., informed consent). This informed consent explained the nature of the research project and all potential risks and benefits to the participating persons. Also, it was clearly communicated that the data obtained from the study is anonymous and confidential and that participation is voluntary and can be stopped at any time. After the experiment, participants were always fully and extensively debriefed. As participants carried out a sequence of non-invasive, harmless tasks at separate workspaces to elicit anonymous choices, no potentially critical ethical implications of the research results were expected.
1. (Un)Certainty Induction
Note: This is an experiential priming method, in which participants are asked to read a paragraph describing several (un)certain events and are then asked to write how (un)certainty shapes their own lives.
<ol>
	<li>Invite participants into the laboratory. Ask them to sit down in a cubicle behind a desk and then introduce them to the paper and pencil questionnaire.</li>
	<li>Tell the participants that they will take part in two (or more) unrelated tasks (which are in fact related to each other). This is important, so participants are ignorant about the fact that the first (priming) task actually influences the performance on the second task (choice, evaluation, etc.). Specifically state which task they have completed and which task will start next.</li>
	<li>Tell participants that in the first task they will read a paragraph about general life events and they will then be asked to write about a personal experience.</li>
	<li>Give half of the participants the &#8220;Uncertainty&#8221; questionnaire and half of the participants the &#8220;Certainty&#8221; questionnaire.</li>
	<li>Print either the paragraph containing uncertain events or the paragraph containing certain events on the first page of the questionnaire.</li>
	<li>Let participants read the following paragraph in the &#8220;Uncertainty&#8221; condition: &#8220;Our lives are characterized by high levels of uncertainty. This seems to hold true on all levels, the societal, economical, as well as the personal. On the societal level, there is an ongoing relocation of industries and we currently experience great shifts in the political climate. Our mobility has increased to such an extent that we do not know whether where we live today will in two years time still be our home. We are also facing extremely high levels of uncertainty at the economical level: The financial markets are highly volatile, the most reliable economy &#8211; the U.S. economy &#8211; has lost its creditworthiness after the debt crisis, and the collapse of Lehman Brothers made us unsure whether our own money and pensions are save in our banks. On the personal level, our positions are more uncertain than was ever true before: long-term planning is becoming more and more difficult as permanent job positions are scarce, marriage is not certain, as people go through many different relationships, and we are nowadays confronted with so many good choice options (of what to do, where to go, what to buy) that we are constantly uncertain whether we made the best decision.&#8221;</li>
	<li>Let participants read the following paragraph in the &#8220;Certainty&#8221; condition: &#8220;Our lives are characterized by high levels of certainty. This seems to hold true on all levels, the societal, economical, as well as the personal. On the societal level we experience great levels of certainty: We can always trust on reliable healthcare when we are sick, we know for sure that the standard of education will be high from a very young age, and we are certain that the insurance will cover the repair of our car after an accident. This is also true at the economical level: Germany has, even during the current tough economical times, proven to be stable. It shows a constant increase in productivity and a minimal inflation, the banks have a very high creditworthiness, and Germany is the most stable economy of Europe. On the personal level, there are more certainties compared to other countries: For instance, if we want to study, we always have the possibility to do so. Furthermore, we are certain that the government will support us financially when we encounter problems or suffer financial hardship. Thanks to the current communication systems in place, we know for sure that we can always stay in contact with our friends and family, even when we are separated.&#8221;</li>
	<li>Let participants then read the introduction of the writing task: &#8220;Now think about how uncertainty shapes your own life. Please think of an example and write on the lines provided underneath the situation, how you felt, etc. Please provide as many details as possible.&#8221;</li>
	<li>Make participants write a maximum of one page. After a maximum of 10 min ask them to stop and to continue to the next task. Make sure participants write enough. No minimum amount of writing was required, but it is likely that more writing intensifies the manipulation. Use a software program, e.g., Medialab or a market research survey software, e.g., Qualtrics, when a paper-and-pencil task is not appropriate (for instance because pens are used as the dependent measure and no unintended additional contact with pens should occur).
	<ol>
		<li>Follow immediately with the manipulation check: &#8220;How do you feel right now?&#8221; from 1 (very uncertain) to 9 (very certain).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Measure participants&#8217; mood either with one item &#8220;How do you feel at this moment&#8221;, from 1 (very negative) to 9 (very positive) or with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)13.
	<ol>
		<li>Give the manipulation checks (level of uncertainty and mood) either directly after the manipulation or after the dependent variable. If measured after the dependent variable, ask participants to recall the personal experience they wrote down in the first task.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To test whether the manipulation was successful, analyze the manipulation checks &#8220;level of uncertainty&#8221; and &#8220;mood&#8221; with a t-test. When mood is measured with the PANAS, analyze with a MANOVA. Read the experiences that participants wrote down to get further insight into the particular situations participants described.</li>
	<li>Use equal numbers of male and female participants. Exclude non-native speakers, as the priming method is less effective when participants are not fluent in the language in which the priming paragraph is written. Exclude also participants that have a significant background in social psychology, as priming tends to be ineffective when participants are highly knowledgeable of priming methods.</li>
</ol>
2. Dependent Variables
<ol>
	<li>Softness seeking: Preference and choice of products with softer properties 
	Note: These tasks are used to demonstrate that when people feel more uncertain, they prefer products with softer properties as compared to products with harder properties. When feeling certain, participants do not show such a preference.
	<ol>
		<li>Select two products that are equal in attractiveness but differ in softness (e.g., one pen with a hard grip vs. one pen with a soft grip or a soft candy (marshmallow) vs. hard candy (bonbon). Pretest this by asking a separate (between-subjects) sample how attractive and how soft the soft-grip pen (soft candy) or the hard-grip pen (hard candy) is on a 9-point scale ranging from 1 (not attractive at all/very soft) to 9 (very attractive/very hard). All other features of the objects should be as equal as possible (quality, color, price, taste).</li>
		<li>Let an experimenter blind to the hypotheses run the whole experiment, because the crucial dependent measure is a choice measure, which the experimenter has to register manually. At the start of the experiment make sure that the products (e.g., pens) are not visible.</li>
		<li>Make participants experience the softness of the objects unobtrusively with an unrelated filler task. For instance, let participants use both pens (and thus feel the soft versus hard properties of the pens) in a separate task by asking them to draw any two objects, one with each pen. Make sure both pens work equally well, to avoid frustration or a low quality experience with the pen. 
		Note: When using food with soft versus hard, properties or anticipation of the experience seems to be sufficient, such that the soft versus hard candy does not need to be touched (and felt) before the choice is made. Counterbalance the order of pen usage to cancel out order effects on subsequent choice.</li>
		<li>Tell participants that the experiment is finished and that they can come out of the cubicle. Tell them that they can choose one of the products (e.g., pen/sweet) as a token of appreciation for their participation in the study. To present the products orderly, put the soft product (e.g., soft-grip pen) on one serving tray and the hard product on another tray. Present both trays on the desk of the experimenter.
		<ol>
			<li>Change the position of the trays (left or right) per day (or half day), to control for right-handed preferences. Fill trays up so they never look empty.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Ask them to choose one of the products. Let the experimenter register which of the two products was chosen (soft or hard). Ask participants which product they would take if they indicate that they do not want to have anything.</li>
		<li>Probe for the hypothesis and exclude participants who guessed the hypothesis.</li>
		<li>Analyze the data using a Chi-square test (for choice) and a t-test (for the manipulation checks) with any statistical program (e.g., SPSS, SAS, R).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Uncertainty reduction: Certainty ratings on an ambiguous task and over time 
	Note: This task is used to test whether the level of uncertainty induced through the priming task is reduced more after holding something soft, than after holding something hard. When certainty is primed, pen usage should not influence the level of uncertainty on a later task.
	<ol>
		<li>Search for an ambiguous task to test participants&#8217; level of uncertainty after holding something soft. Use for instance the Snowy Pictures Task (SPT)11, which is a task that consists of a set of pictures in which objects are embedded in visual snow.</li>
		<li>Select seven relatively easy items of the original SPT. Select easy items (criterion: at least 65% of the participants have to indicate the correct answer in a pretest in which people are asked to write down the image they believe to see behind the visual snow). This is done because the task should not evoke too much arousal. Use for example the boot, tent, chair, horses, fish, hand/glove, and rugby ball of the original SPT task and exclude the more difficult items (torch/flashlight, duck, fly, knife, flying saucer).</li>
		<li>Introduce the task as a pretest for new material for a visual perception task.</li>
		<li>Print each picture (size 8.5 cm (w) X 6 cm (h)) on one page. On the line underneath the picture, ask participants to write down which object they think is hidden behind the snow. Let participants indicate on a Likert scale from 1 (very uncertain) to 9 (very certain) how certain they feel about their answer.</li>
		<li>Ask half of the participants to hold something soft while doing the task and the other half to hold something hard (e.g., ask participants to do the SPT task either with a soft-grip or a hard-grip pen). Make sure that the participants do not use their own pen when using a pen as manipulation of softness and check whether the pen works well before giving them to the participant, in order to avoid frustration or a low quality experience with the pen.</li>
		<li>Ask participants to indicate their general level of uncertainty after the SPT task, using the same question as the manipulation check (How do you feel right now?). This measure is used to test the level of uncertainty over time (Time 1 = Manipulation check immediately after prime (see 1.12) and Time 2 = After participants held something soft (e.g. after the SPT task)).</li>
		<li>Analyze the level of uncertainty on the ambiguous SPT task with a 2-way ANOVA with prime and pen as between-subjects variables. Analyze level of uncertainty over time with a 3-way repeated measures ANOVA with time as repeated measures (within-subject) variable and prime and pen as between-subjects variables (using SPSS, SAS, or R).</li>
		<li>Assess demographics, probe for the hypothesis and debrief.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Reversed Link: Softness Affects Tolerance of Uncertainty in Daily Life
Note: This task is used to demonstrate that the uncertainty-softness link is bidirectional: It is examined whether higher levels of uncertainty not only make participants seek experiences of haptic softness but whether experiences of haptic softness (e.g., holding a soft vs a hard cloth) also make participants to tolerate higher levels of uncertainty in daily life.
<ol>
	<li>Select two different cloths that differ in texture and are as much as possible equal in quality, color and size. In the current experiment use a soft cloth (suede) and a rough cloth (fabric for furniture or curtains). Because a between-subjects design is used, minor differences between the two cloths are acceptable.</li>
	<li>Pretest the cloths on degree of softness. Ask a separate sample of participants (between subjects) to hold the piece of fabric in their hands and to answer the question: &#8220;How does this fabric feel from 1 (very soft) to 9 (very rough).</li>
	<li>Program the experiment software (step 1.9) and write in the instructions that participants will first do a product testing task (as a cover story) and will then fill out a personality questionnaire. Ask them to read all the instructions on the computer screen carefully.</li>
	<li>Randomly assign half of the participants to hold the soft fabric for 1 min and the other half to hold the hard fabric. Tell them that they have to move the cloth in between their fingers in order to feel the fabric well, as they will be asked to evaluate the fabric afterwards.</li>
	<li>Let participants rate the quality of the fabric with three questions &#8220;How attractive do you think the fabric is?&#8221; from (not attractive at all) to (very attractive), &#8220;How soft do you think the fabric is?&#8221; from (very rough) to 9 (very soft), and &#8220;How do you evaluate the fabric from 1 (very negative) to 9 (very positive) to back up the cover story.</li>
	<li>Let participants fill out two subsets of the Uncertainty Intolerance Scale using a 9-point scale ranging from &#8220;Strongly disagree&#8221; to &#8220;Strongly agree&#8221;12. 
	Note: The scale is a German translation of the original scale developed by Dugas, Gosselin, &#38; Ladouceur (2001)14. Use the two subscales (&#8220;Burden due to uncertainty intolerance&#8221; and &#8220;Vigilance due to uncertainty intolerance&#8221;) of the Uncertainty Intolerance Scale. These subscales focus on the inability to predict the future (e.g., &#8220;I always want to know what the future has in store for me&#8221; and &#8220;A small, unforeseen event can spoil everything, even with the best of planning&#8221;) and are therefore of interest to test the current hypothesis.</li>
	<li>Analyze the data, after averaging the two Uncertainty Intolerance subscales into one measure, with a t-test.</li>
	<li>Use equal numbers of male and female participants. Probe for the hypothesis and debrief.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

This article describes a set of measures on how people can cope with and can reduce uncertainty via an experiential instead of a cognitive route. Furthermore, it demonstrates a method to experimentally activate environmental uncertainty enabling researchers to examine how this type of uncertainty, besides choice uncertainty, affects decision-making and choice. Third, it discusses three different methods (both direct and indirect) measuring whether softness seeking can reduce uncertainty.
The p...

Uncertainty, its antecedents and consequences, is a highly investigated topic in economics, psychology, and marketing. Understandably so, as in modern society people are constantly confronted with uncertainty: In their daily shopping decisions, their careers, and their family dynamics. Learning to negotiate and cope with uncertainty has thus become a requirement of modern life.
Uncertainty is generally defined as a lack of knowledge. To date, most research in marketing and decision-making has focused on uncertainty due to choice alternatives. Because of incomplete information, people feel uncertain about the alternatives available and the utility of these alternatives 1,2. In order to reduce such uncertainty, people often try to increase their knowledge base and seek additional information2-4.
However, besides feeling uncertain because of missing information, people are also subjected to uncertainty due to unpredictable and uncontrollable external events of which the impact is difficult to judge on one&#8217;s future life5,6. Such environmental uncertainty arises when one does not know how the environment might be changing and thus cannot assign probabilities to the likelihood of future events. Examples of this type of uncertainty are for instance economic fluctuations, threats of terrorist attacks, and political changes. Under such uncertainty evoking circumstances, simply searching for information will fail to combat uncertainty. Especially because environmental uncertainty is ever more prevalent in modern society and there is very little known about how such uncertainty affects decision-making and choice, it is of paramount importance to develop a new experimental method to situationally activate environmental uncertainty. The present protocol caters to these needs.
Furthermore, traditionally the focus has been on the cognitive strategies people use when facing uncertainty. Research has for instance demonstrated that &#8211; besides seeking additional information &#8211; people become more close-minded about their attitudes7, emphasize fairness and fair procedures8, and perceive illusionary patterns in random stimuli when facing uncertainty 9. However, people are not always able to cognitively cope with uncertainty, for instance when they lack time or when they have limited cognitive capacity to do so. In which case they may use an alternate, experiential route and seek soft haptic sensations to efficiently cope with and reduce uncertainty.
Human judgment can be influenced by bodily experiences that are transmitted by the sensory systems making contact with the external world (i.e., visual, acoustic or haptic). These feelings can influence our judgments without a semantic, cognitive interpretation of the sensory input10. Touching something soft may be such a bodily experience people search for when having to deal with uncertainty. In childhood, feelings of discomfort are often alleviated through physical touch such as holding or patting by caregivers or by feeling soft cuddly toys. Through such early experiences with touch, softness becomes strongly associated with comfort and security and can therefore be an effective tool to battle uncertainty. But what type of soft haptic sensation will help in dealing with uncertainty? Any type? And should softness be experienced or is it enough when the soft properties of an object are merely seen on a computer screen? This protocol addresses these issues.
Besides the strategies people use to cope with uncertainty, it is of importance to know whether a particular strategy is functional. The functionality of softness seeking can for instance be measured subjectively by establishing one&#8217;s level of uncertainty before and after holding something soft (level of uncertainty over time). Another way to assess uncertainty reduction more indirectly is by using an ambiguous task, such as the Snowy Picture Task (SPT)11. This task consists of a set of pictures in which objects are embedded in visual snow. Participants have to indicate which object they think is hidden behind the snow and their uncertainty with regard to their answer. Last, a personality questionnaire (Uncertainty Intolerance Scale12) can be used to measure whether softness can also increase a person&#8217;s general tolerance towards uncertainty in daily life.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Medialab</td><td>Empirisoft</td><td></td><td>Program to create and run experiments&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Qualtrics</td><td>Qualtrics.com</td><td></td><td>Online survey program</td></tr><tr><td>SPSS Version 21</td><td>IBM</td><td></td><td>Statistical program</td></tr></tbody></table>

experimental research examining how people can cope with uncertainty through soft haptic sensations

Human beings are constantly surrounded by uncertainty and change. The question arises how people cope with such uncertainty. To date, most research has focused on the cognitive strategies people adopt to deal with uncertainty. However, especially when uncertainty is due to unpredictable societal events (e.g., economical crises, political revolutions, terrorism threats) of which one is unable to judge the impact on one&#8217;s future live, cognitive strategies (like seeking additional information) is likely to fail to combat uncertainty. Instead, the current paper discusses a method demonstrating that people might deal with uncertainty experientially through soft haptic sensations. More specifically, because touching something soft creates a feeling of comfort and security, people prefer objects with softer as compared to harder properties when feeling uncertain. Seeking for softness is a highly efficient and effective tool to deal with uncertainty as our hands are available at all times. This protocol describes a set of methods demonstrating 1) how environmental (un)certainty can be situationally activated with an experiential priming procedure, 2) that the quality of the softness experience (what type of softness and how it is experienced) matters and 3) how uncertainty can be reduced using different methods.

These studies were used to investigate 1) whether people prefer objects with soft properties when facing uncertainty and 2) whether searching for softness when facing uncertainty is functional, i.e., whether it reduces uncertainty. A priming procedure (described above) was used to experimentally manipulate environmental (un)certainty. The manipulation checks across the three studies confirmed the effectiveness of the newly developed experiential priming of (un)certainty (p = .06; p = .04; p...

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Experimental Research Examining How People Can Cope with Uncertainty Through Soft Haptic Sensations

To date research has focused on cognitive strategies people adopt to cope with uncertainty. This research examines instead an experiential way of dealing with uncertainty and introduces a set of experimental methods showing how the experience of haptic softness can serve as a tool to deal with uncertainty.

Human beings are constantly surrounded by uncertainty and change. The question arises how people cope with such uncertainty. To date, most research has ...

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Social Judgement and Decision-Making

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8.9K Views.  VU University. To date research has focused on cognitive strategies people adopt to cope with uncertainty. This research examines instead an experiential way of dealing with uncertainty and introduces a set of experimental methods showing how the experience of haptic softness can serve as a tool to deal with uncertainty.

Video: Experimental Research Examining How People Can Cope with Uncertainty Through Soft Haptic Sensations

The Crossmodal Congruency Task as a Means to Obtain an Objective Behavioral Measure in the Rubber Hand Illusion Paradigm

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden hand is touched. If the viewed and felt touches are given at the same time then this is sufficient to induce the compelling experience that the rubber hand is one's own hand. The RHI can be used to investigate exactly how the brain constructs distinct body representations for one's own body. Such representations are crucial for successful interactions with the external world. To obtain a subjective measure of the RHI, researchers typically ask participants to rate statements such as "I felt as if the rubber hand were my hand". Here we demonstrate how the crossmodal congruency task can be used to obtain an objective behavioral measure within this paradigm.
The variant of the crossmodal congruency task we employ involves the presentation of tactile targets and visual distractors. Targets and distractors are spatially congruent (i.e. same finger) on some trials and incongruent (i.e. different finger) on others. The difference in performance between incongruent and congruent trials - the crossmodal congruency effect (CCE) - indexes multisensory interactions. Importantly, the CCE is modulated both by viewing a hand as well as the synchrony of viewed and felt touch which are both crucial factors for the RHI.
The use of the crossmodal congruency task within the RHI paradigm has several advantages. It is a simple behavioral measure which can be repeated many times and which can be obtained during the illusion while participants view the artificial hand. Furthermore, this measure is not susceptible to observer and experimenter biases. The combination of the RHI paradigm with the crossmodal congruency task allows in particular for the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the RHI.

We demonstrate how an objective measure can be employed in the widely employed rubber hand illusion paradigm. This measure is obtained by modifying the well-established crossmodal congruency task. This task allows the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the rubber hand illusion.

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden ...

Testing Tactile Masking between the Forearms

Masking, in which one stimulus affects the detection of another, is a classic technique that has been used in visual, auditory, and tactile research, usually using stimuli that are close together to reveal local interactions. Masking effects have also been demonstrated in which a tactile stimulus alters the perception of a touch at a distant location. Such effects can provide insight into how components of the body's representations in the brain may be linked. Occasional reports have indicated that touches on one hand or forearm can affect tactile sensitivity at corresponding contralateral locations. To explore the matching of corresponding points across the body, we can measure the spatial tuning and effect of posture on contralateral masking. Careful controls are required to rule out direct effects of the remote stimulus, for example by mechanical transmission, and also attention effects in which thresholds may be altered by the participant's attention being drawn away from the stimulus of interest. The use of this technique is beneficial as a behavioural measure for exploring which parts of the body are functionally connected and whether the two sides of the body interact in a somatotopic representation. This manuscript describes a behavioural protocol that can be used for studying contralateral tactile masking.

Here we explore contralateral tactile masking between the forearms in which tactile detection thresholds are modulated by vibration applied to a remote site. The details of which remote sites have an effect can tell us about how the body is represented in the brain.

Masking, in which one stimulus affects the detection of another, is a classic technique that has been used in visual, auditory, and tactile research, ...

Creating Virtual-hand and Virtual-face Illusions to Investigate Self-representation

Studies investigating how people represent themselves and their own body often use variants of &#34;ownership illusions&#34;, such as the traditional rubber-hand illusion or the more recently discovered enfacement illusion. However, these examples require rather artificial experimental setups, in which the artificial effector needs to be stroked in synchrony with the participants&#39; real hand or face&#8212;a situation in which participants have no control over the stroking or the movements of their real or artificial effector. Here, we describe a technique to establish ownership illusions in a setup that is more realistic, more intuitive, and of presumably higher ecological validity. It allows creating the virtual-hand illusion by having participants control the movements of a virtual hand presented on a screen or in virtual space in front of them. If the virtual hand moves in synchrony with the participants&#39; own real hand, they tend to perceive the virtual hand as part of their own body. The technique also creates the virtual-face illusion by having participants control the movements of a virtual face in front of them, again with the effect that they tend to perceive the face as their own if it moves in synchrony with their real face. Studying the circumstances that illusions of this sort can be created, increased, or reduced provides important information about how people create and maintain representations of themselves.

Here, we describe virtual-hand and virtual-face illusion paradigms that can be used to study body-related self-perception/-representation. They have already been used in various studies to demonstrate that, under specific conditions, a virtual hand or face can be incorporated into one&#39;s body representation, suggesting that body representations are rather flexible.

Studies investigating how people represent themselves and their own body often use variants of &#34;ownership illusions&#34;, such as the traditional ...

Characterization of the Sense of Agency over the Actions of Neural-machine Interface-operated Prostheses

This work describes a methodological framework that can be used to explicitly and implicitly characterize the sense of agency developed over the neural-machine interface (NMI) control of sensate virtual or robotic prosthetic hands. The formation of agency is fundamental in distinguishing the actions that we perform with our limbs as being our own. By striving to incorporate advanced upper-limb prostheses into these same perceptual mechanisms, we can begin to integrate an artificial limb more closely into the user&#39;s existing cognitive framework for limb control. This has important implications in promoting user acceptance, use, and effective control of advanced upper-limb prostheses. In this protocol, participants control a virtual prosthetic hand and receive kinesthetic sensory feedback through their preexisting NMIs. A series of virtual grasping tasks are performed and perturbations are systematically introduced to the kinesthetic feedback and virtual hand movements. Two separate measures of agency are employed: established psychophysical questionnaires (to capture the explicit experience of agency) and a time interval estimate task to capture the implicit sense of agency (intentional binding). Results of this protocol (questionnaire scores and time interval estimates) can be analyzed to quantify the extent of agency formation.

Here we present a protocol which characterizes the sense of agency developed over the control of sensate virtual or robotic prosthetic hands. Psychophysical questionnaires are employed to capture the explicit experience of agency, and time interval estimates (intentional binding) are employed to implicitly measure the sense of agency.

This work describes a methodological framework that can be used to explicitly and implicitly characterize the sense of agency developed over the ...

Observing the Transformation of Bodily Self-consciousness in the Squeeze-machine Experiment

How is our bodily self-consciousness acquired, and how does it affect cognition? To investigate this, we conducted an experiment using the squeeze machine, a device that provides pressure along the length of the user&#8217;s whole body. The squeeze machine is used to help autistic people relax. The inventor of the machine, Dr. Temple Grandin says that the squeeze machine, beyond bringing her relaxation, enables her to feel empathy for others. This claim is of considerable interest and raises the following two points; first, the problem of empathy in autism is an important issue and Squeeze Machine could be effective. Second, it suggests that the physical action of Squeeze Machine could provide an insight of mind-body problem to us. Here, we hypothesize that the squeeze machine focuses conscious to direct the bodily self, transforming bodily self-consciousness itself. Such intentionality could bring empathy to others. In this study, we tested whether bodily self-consciousness would be transformed through the squeeze-machine experience. In the first part of the protocol, we simplified the original design of Grandin&#8217;s squeeze machine but ensured that it retained its relaxing effect. In the second part of the protocol, we adopted a preestablished method of peri-personal space (PPS) measurement to estimate changes in extended bodily space. The results showed that the boundaries of PPS that appeared in the control experiment disappeared during the use of the squeeze machine. Indeed, collected subjective reports suggest that bodily self-consciousness continually drifted between the point of action of the external force (squeeze-machine pressure) and of an internal force (balance among body parts that are usually not consciously controlled), leading to the abandonment of the immobilization of individual PPS.

The squeeze machine, a V-shaped device that provides pressure along the whole body is used in therapy especially for people with autism. Here, we focus on its possible use in experiments to capture the typical transformations of bodily self-consciousness with peri-personal space measurement.

How is our bodily self-consciousness acquired, and how does it affect cognition? To investigate this, we conducted an experiment using the squeeze ...

Applying Incongruent Visual-Tactile Stimuli during Object Transfer with Vibro-Tactile Feedback

The application of incongruent sensory signals that involves disrupted tactile feedback is rarely explored, specifically with the presence of vibrotactile feedback (VTF). This protocol aims to test the effect of VTF on the response to incongruent visual-tactile stimuli. The tactile feedback is acquired by grasping a block and moving it across a partition. The visual feedback is a real-time virtual presentation of the moving block, acquired using a motion capture system. The congruent feedback is the reliable presentation of the movement of the block, so that the subject feels that the block is grasped and see it move along with the path of the hand. The incongruent feedback appears as the movement of the block diverts from the actual movement path, so that it seems to drop from the hand when it is actually still held by the subject, thereby contradicting the tactile feedback. Twenty subjects (age 30.2 &#177; 16.3) repeated 16 block transfers, while their hand was hidden. These were repeated with VTF and without VTF (total of 32 block transfers). Incongruent stimuli were presented randomly twice within the 16 repetitions in each condition (with and without VTF). Each subject was asked to rate the difficulty level of performing the task with and without the VTF. There were no statistically significant differences in the length of the hand paths and durations between transfers recorded with congruent and incongruent visual-tactile signals &#8211; with and without the VTF. The perceived difficulty level of performing the task with the VTF significantly correlated with the normalized path length of the block with VTF (r = 0.675, p = 0.002). This setup is used to quantify the additive or reductive value of VTF during motor function that involves incongruent visual-tactile stimuli. Possible applications are prosthetics design, smart sport-wear, or any other garments that incorporate VTF.

We present a protocol to apply incongruent visual-tactile stimuli during an object transfer task. Specifically, during block transfers, performed while the hand is hidden, a virtual presentation of the block shows random occurrences of false block drops. The protocol also describes adding vibrotactile feedback while performing the motor task.

The application of incongruent sensory signals that involves disrupted tactile feedback is rarely explored, specifically with the presence of vibrotactile ...

Tactile Semiautomatic Passive-Finger Angle Stimulator (TSPAS)

Passive tactile perception is the ability to passively and statically perceive stimulus information coming from the skin; for example, the ability to sense spatial information is the strongest in the skin on the hands. This ability is termed tactile spatial acuity, and is measured by the tactile threshold or discrimination threshold. At present, the two-point threshold is extensively used as a measure of tactile spatial acuity, although many studies have indicated that critical deficits exist in two-point discrimination. Therefore, a computer-controlled tactile stimulus system was developed, the tactile semiautomated passive-finger angle stimulator (TSPAS), using the tactile angle discrimination threshold as a new measure for tactile spatial acuity. The TSPAS is a simple, easily operated system that applies raised angle stimuli to a subject&#39;s passive fingerpad, while controlling movement speed, distance, and contact duration. The components of the TSPAS are described in detail as well as the procedure to calculate the tactile angle discrimination threshold.

Tactile Semiautomatic Passive-Finger Angle Stimulator TSPAS

Presented is the tactile semiautomated passive-finger angle stimulator TSPAS, a new way to assess tactile spatial acuity and tactile angle discrimination using a computer-controlled tactile stimulus system that applies raised angle stimuli to a subject&#39;s passive fingerpad, while controlling for movement speed, distance, and contact duration.

Passive tactile perception is the ability to passively and statically perceive stimulus information coming from the skin; for example, the ability to ...

Investigating Pain-Related Avoidance Behavior using a Robotic Arm-Reaching Paradigm

Avoidance behavior is a key contributor to the transition from acute pain to chronic pain disability. Yet, there has been a lack of ecologically valid paradigms to experimentally investigate pain-related avoidance. To fill this gap, we developed a paradigm (the robotic arm-reaching paradigm) to investigate the mechanisms underlying the development of pain-related avoidance behavior. Existing avoidance paradigms (mostly in the context of anxiety research) have often operationalized avoidance as an experimenter-instructed, low-cost response, superimposed on stimuli associated with threat during a Pavlovian fear conditioning procedure. In contrast, the current method offers increased ecological validity in terms of instrumental learning (acquisition) of avoidance, and by adding a cost to the avoidance response. In the paradigm, participants perform arm-reaching movements from a starting point to a target using a robotic arm, and freely choose between three different movement trajectories to do so. The movement trajectories differ in probability of being paired with a painful electrocutaneous stimulus, and in required effort in terms of deviation and resistance. Specifically, the painful stimulus can be (partly) avoided at the cost of performing movements requiring increased effort. Avoidance behavior is operationalized as the maximal deviation from the shortest trajectory on each trial. In addition to explaining how the new paradigm can help understand the acquisition of avoidance, we describe adaptations of the robotic arm-reaching paradigm for (1) examining the spread of avoidance to other stimuli (generalization), (2) modeling clinical treatment in the lab (extinction of avoidance using response prevention), as well as (3) modeling relapse, and return of avoidance following extinction (spontaneous recovery). Given the increased ecological validity, and numerous possibilities for extensions and/or adaptations, the robotic arm-reaching paradigm offers a promising tool to facilitate the investigation of avoidance behavior and to further our understanding of its underlying processes.

Avoidance is central to chronic pain disability, yet adequate paradigms for examining pain-related avoidance are lacking. Therefore, we developed a paradigm that allows investigating how pain-related avoidance behavior is learned (acquisition), spreads to other stimuli (generalization), can be mitigated (extinction), and how it may subsequently re-emerge (spontaneous recovery).

Avoidance behavior is a key contributor to the transition from acute pain to chronic pain disability. Yet, there has been a lack of ecologically valid ...

Measuring Changes in Tactile Sensitivity in the Hind Paw of Mice Using an Electronic von Frey Apparatus

Measuring inflammation-induced changes in thresholds of hind paw withdrawal from mechanical pressure is a useful technique to assess changes in pain perception in rodents. Withdrawal thresholds can be measured first at baseline and then following drug, venom, injury, allergen,&#160;or otherwise evoked inflammation by applying an accurate force on very specific areas of the skin. An electronic von Frey apparatus allows precise assessment of mouse hind paw withdrawal thresholds that are not limited by the available filament sizes in contrast to classical von Frey measurements. The ease and rapidity of measurements allow for incorporation of assessment of tactile sensitivity outcomes in diverse models of rapid-onset inflammatory and neuropathic pain as multiple measurements can be taken within a short time period. Experimental measurements for individual rodent subjects can be internally controlled against individual baseline responses and exclusion criteria easily established to standardize baseline responses within and across experimental groups. Thus, measurements using an electronic von Frey apparatus represent a useful modification of the well-established classical von Frey filament-based assays for rodent mechanical allodynia that may also be applied to other nonhuman mammalian models.

Electronic von Frey measurements are an effective and improved alternative to classical von Frey filaments, as they allow rapid and precise measurement of changes in rodent mechanical withdrawal thresholds to continuously applied pressure stimuli before and after an inflammatory event.

Measuring inflammation-induced changes in thresholds of hind paw withdrawal from mechanical pressure is a useful technique to assess changes in pain ...

Neuroscience

Design, Fabrication, and Administration of the Hand Active Sensation Test (HASTe)

The concept of personalizing neurologic rehabilitation, based on individual impairments, has experienced a recent surge. In parallel, the number of outcome measures of upper extremity motor performance has grown. However, clinicians and researchers lack practical, quantitative measures of the hand&#8217;s natural role as a receptor of the environment. The Hand Active Sensation Test (HASTe), developed by Williams and colleagues in 2006, is a valid and reliable measure of haptic performance. Though not available commercially, the HASTe can be fabricated from inexpensive materials, and it has been used successfully to identify impairments in haptic touch in individuals with stroke. (Williams, 2006). This paper presents the methods of design and fabrication of the HASTe testing kit, as well as a visual screen to be used during administration, and instructions for the tests administration and scoring.

Design, Fabrication, and Administration of the Hand Active Sensation Test HASTe

The Hand Active Sensation Test (HASTe) is a valid and reliable measure of haptic performance, which has been used successfully to identify impaired haptic touch in individuals with stroke. The purpose of this paper is to describe the design, fabrication and administration of the HASTe.

The concept of personalizing neurologic rehabilitation, based on individual impairments, has experienced a recent surge. In parallel, the number of ...