Com a subvenção de NIH SBC COBRE 1P20GM121310-01.

Todos os métodos descritos aqui foram aprovados pelo Comitê de uso (IACUC) da Universidade de Wyoming e institucional Cuidado Animal. Todos os procedimentos, incluindo gravações eletrofisiológicas, são realizados à temperatura ambiente, cerca de 23 ° C. Todos os métodos descritos aqui são otimizados para gravação tectal neurônios de girinos entre estágio desenvolvente 42 e 49 (encenado de acordo com Neiuwkoop e Faber15).
1. preparação na Vivo
<ol><li>Anestesia o girino.<ol>
<li>Coloque o girino em um pequeno prato de Petri contendo solução de Steinberg com 0.01% MS-222 por aproximadamente 5 min. Nota: MS-222 aka "tricaina" é um peixe comum e anfíbios anestésico. Os girinos são gerados em solução a Steinberg em mM: 0.067 KCl, 0.034 Ca (NO3)2•4H2O, 0.083 MgSO4•7H2O, NaCl 5.8, 4,9 HEPES.</li>
		<li>Certifique-se do que girino é profundamente anestesiada (não-responsivos e não mais natação) antes de prosseguir para a etapa 2.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Fixe o girino anestesiado para um bloco de silicone submerso no chão do prato dissecando/gravação.<ol>
<li>Usar uma pipeta de transferência descartável para mover o girino anestesiado para um prato de dissecação/gravação contendo a solução de gravação externa (115 mM de NaCl, 2mm de KCl, com 3 mM de CaCl2, 3 mM de MgCl2, 5mm de HEPES, 1 mM de glicose; ajustar o pH para 7,25 usando 10 N de NaOH, osmolaridade 255 mOsm).<ol>
<li>Para minimizar o músculo espontâneo se mexer, adicione o bloqueador do receptor de acetilcolina, tubocurarina (100 µM) para a solução externa. (Normalmente, isso é feito usando uma pipeta de 200 µ l para adicionar 100 µ l de um estoque de tubocurarina 10 mM a 10 mL de solução externa).</li>
		</ol>
</li>
		<li>Usando pinos insetos, segura o girino, o lado dorsal, com uma pedra submersa de elastómero de silicone (tais como Sylgard 184, consulte Tabela de materiais para obter detalhes), que tem sido colada ao piso dissecação do prato. Nota: A colocação dos pinos é crítica: colocá-los em ambos os lados do cérebro, caudal suficientemente para evitar empalar os axônios RGC aferentes esse projeto do olho e penetra o cérebro apenas anterior a óptica tectum (Figura 1A).</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Filé do cérebro ao longo da linha mediana.<ol>
<li>Para uma visão clara do cérebro, retire a pele sobrejacente do cérebro tornando-se uma incisão superficial ao longo da linha mediana usando uma agulha estéril de 25-G.</li>
		<li>Filé do cérebro ao longo do eixo da linha média mesmo inserindo a agulha no tubo neural e puxando suavemente para cima (dorsalmente) tal que a porção dorsal do tubo é cortada corretamente (cortada) deixando a placa de assoalho intacta (Figura 1B). Nota: É importante que a placa de assoalho do tubo neural deixada intacta porque as entradas sensoriais aferentes entram o tectum através da placa de piso.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Remova a membrana ventricular transparente que cobre os neurônios tectal.<ol>
<li>Mover o prato de gravação para o equipamento de eletrofisiologia e use uma ponta de pipeta de vidro quebrado para remover a membrana ventricular sobrejacente os corpos celulares de neurônios tectal. Quebre a ponta levemente arrastando-o através de um limpador de tarefa delicada.</li>
		<li>Dane-se a pipeta no suporte da pipeta e abaixá-la até o tectum óptica através do micromanipulador.</li>
		<li>Use a pipeta quebrada a casca da membrana ventricular longe o tectum. Nota: Não é necessário remover a membrana do tectum inteira; uma pequena janela irá ser suficiente e fornecer acesso à abundância de neurônios.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Obter a célula inteira gravações de braçadeira do remendo. Nota: A abordagem a partir de agora é semelhante ao efectuar gravações de grampo celular remendo de fatias de cérebro de rato, conforme descrito em Segev, et al 16 (Figura 1C).</li>
	<li>Grave as respostas tectal neurônio para um flash de todo campo de luz projetada na retina.<ol>
<li>Para projeta um flash de todo campo de luz na retina, coloque uma fibra óptica adjacentes ao olho do girino. No outro extremo da fibra óptica é um LED em consonância com um resistor variável que permite para a luminosidade da luz ser controlado. Acionar o LED pela saída digital do amplificador. Desta forma, todo campo flashes de diferentes intensidades de luz podem ser gravado(Figura 4).</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>2. todo o cérebro preparação
<ol><li>Execute as etapas 1.1 a 1.3. Nota: Não há nenhuma necessidade para tubocurarina na solução externa para esta preparação.</li>
	<li>Isole o cérebro.<ol>
<li>Use uma agulha de 25 G para romper o rombencéfalo(Figura 2).</li>
		<li>Para isolar o cérebro inteiro do girino, passa suavemente a agulha por baixo do cérebro, em uma direção caudal e rostral para separar todas as lateral e ventral do tecido conjuntivo e fibras nervosas.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Proteger o cérebro de um bloco de elastômero de silicone.<ol>
<li>Assim completamente livre, proteger o cérebro de um bloco de elastômero de silicone, colocando um pino através de um dos bulbos olfatórios e outro alfinete e o rombencéfalo (Figura 2B). Esta é a configuração ideal para gravação de neurônios tectal.</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Mova o prato que contém a preparação de cérebro inteiro fixado do escopo dissecar ao equipamento de eletrofisiologia. Remova a membrana ventricular utilizando uma pipeta de vidro quebrado, conforme descrito na etapa 1.4.</li>
	<li>Coloque um eletrodo bipolar estimulante sobre o quiasma óptico (onde os panfletos do axónio de cada olho cruzam no mesencéfalo) para ativar diretamente os axônios RGC.<ol>
<li>Coloque o eletrodo bipolar estimulante rostral e quase ao lado, o ventrículo médio grande. O quiasma situa-se imediatamente rostral ao ventrículo médio grande (Figura 2B).<ol>
<li>Delicadamente mais o eletrodo estimulante para baixo sobre o quiasma tal que uma pequena amolgadela é formada no tecido. O eletrodo bipolar é impulsionado por um estimulador de pulso que permite que a força de estimulação a ser precisamente controlada.</li>
		</ol>
</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>Executar a gravação de grampo de remendo de célula inteira (Figura 2C) conforme descrito por Segev, et al 16
</li>
</ol>3. preparação de fatia do cérebro horizontal
<ol><li>Execute os passos 2.1 para 2.3.</li>
	<li>Use uma lâmina de barbear para excisar a quarta mais lateral (que na vivo corresponde a quarta mais dorsal) de um lado de uma óptica tectum. Este corte é feito paralelo ao plano rostral-caudal, como mostrado na Figura 3.</li>
	<li>Re-pino do cérebro para o lado do elastómero de silicone com o fatiado lateral voltada para cima (de modo que o somata e neurópilo podem ser acessados diretamente por gravação) e a superfície ventricular do cérebro para fora do bloco de elastômero de silicone (Figura 3 B) (para que um eletrodo bipolar pode ser colocado sobre o quiasma óptico).</li>
	<li>Executar a braçadeira do remendo de célula inteira ou gravação local potencial arquivada (Figura 3C) conforme descrito por Segev, et al 16
</li>
</ol>

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Todos os métodos descritos neste trabalho são otimizados para gravação tectal neurônios de girinos entre estágio desenvolvente 42 e 49 (encenado de acordo com Neiuwkoop e Faber15). Pela fase 42, os girinos são suficientemente grande e suficientemente desenvolvidos para que os pinos de insetos podem ser colocados em ambos os lados do cérebro para gravações na vivo e para a realização da dissecação do cérebro inteiro. Nas fases anteriores, quando os girinos são essencialment...

O circuito de retinotectal é o principal componente do sistema visual de anfíbios. É composto pelos RGCs nos olhos, que se projetam seus axônios para o tectum óptica onde formam conexões sinápticas com neurônios tectal pós-sináptica. O circuito de retinotectal de girino Xenopus é um modelo de desenvolvimento popular para estudar a função e formação de circuitos neurais. Existem muitos atributos do circuito de retinotectal dos girinos que a tornam um poderoso modelo experimental1,2,3. Um atributo importante e o foco deste artigo, é a capacidade de realizar gravações de grampo celular remendo de neurônios tectal, vivo em ou utilizar uma preparação de todo o cérebro. Com uma plataforma de eletrofisiologia, equipada com um amplificador que suporta a tensão e corrente-grampo - modos de gravação, gravações de grampo celular patch permitam eletrofisiologia de um neurônio ser caracterizado em alta resolução. Como resultado, gravações de grampo celular remendo de neurônios tectal em toda as fases chaves da formação de circuito retinotectal forneceram uma compreensão detalhada e abrangente do desenvolvimento e plasticidade de intrínseca4,5 , 6 , 7 e sináptica8,9,10,11 Propriedades. Combinando as gravações do neurônio tectal braçadeira remendo célula inteira, a habilidade de expressar genes ou morpholinos de interesse destes neurônios12e um método para avaliar o comportamento visual de guiada através de um teste de prevenção visual estabelecida13 promove o identificação de ligações entre moléculas, circuito função e comportamento.
É importante notar que o tipo de alta resolução de dados adquiridos a partir de gravações de grampo celular patch não são possíveis usar novos enfoques de imagem como o indicador de genética de cálcio GCaMP6, porque embora usando indicadores de cálcio permite a geração de imagens de cálcio dinâmica através de grandes populações de neurônios simultaneamente, há não direta ou forma óbvia de que os parâmetros elétricos específicos podem ser obtidos pela medição de fluorescência delta no somata e não há maneira de tensão grampear o neurônio para medir relações de corrente-tensão. Claramente estas duas abordagens distintas, eletrofisiológicas gravações e imagens de cálcio, possuem pontos fortes não sobrepostas e gerar diferentes tipos de dados. Assim, a melhor abordagem depende a questão experimental específica a ser tratada.
Aqui, descrevemos nosso método para a aquisição de gravações de grampo celular remendo de neurônios do tectum óptica de girino, usando uma in vivo preparação, preparação de todo o cérebro, e uma nova modificado a preparação de todo o cérebro que foi desenvolvida em nosso laboratório14 . Na seção de resultados de representante, demonstramos as vantagens experimentais de cada preparação e os diferentes tipos de dados que podem ser obtidos. Os limites e os pontos fortes de preparações diferentes, bem como dicas para solução de problemas, são incluídos na seção discussão.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1012px;" width="1011">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:423px;">Stemi Stereo 508</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:148px;">495009-0006-000&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:299px;">Dissecting microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MS-222 &#34;Tricane&#34;</td>
			<td>Finquel</td>
			<td>ARF5G</td>
			<td>Amphibian general anesthetic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S271-3</td>
			<td>Used to prepare Stienberg&#39;s solution and external solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Potassium Chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P217-500</td>
			<td>Used to prepare Stienberg&#39;s solution and external solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3375-1KG</td>
			<td>Used to prepare Stienberg&#39;s solution and external solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;">Calcium nitrate tetrahyrate (Ca(NO3)&#8226;4H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>237124-500G</td>
			<td>Used to prepare Stienberg&#39;s solution&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;">Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4)</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt Chemicals</td>
			<td>6066-04</td>
			<td>Used to prepare Steinberg&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;">Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C5080-500G</td>
			<td>Used to prepare external recording solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;">Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)</td>
			<td>J.T. Baker</td>
			<td>2444-01</td>
			<td>Used to prepare external recording solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">D-glucose Anhydrous</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt Chemicals</td>
			<td>6066-04</td>
			<td>Used to prepare external recording solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tubocurarine hydrochloride pentahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T2379</td>
			<td>Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Insect Pins</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>26002-10</td>
			<td>0.1mm diameter stainless steel pins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sylgard 184 Silicone Elastomer Kit</td>
			<td>Dow Corning</td>
			<td>761028</td>
			<td>Preweighed monomer and curing agent kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sterile Polystyrene Petri Dish - 60x15mm</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AS4052</td>
			<td>Small petri dishes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PrecisionGlide Needle 25Gx5/8 (.0.5mm X 16mm)</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>305122</td>
			<td>Syringe needles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">1mL Slip Tip Tuberculin Syringe&#160;</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>309659</td>
			<td>Disposable, sterile syringes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Borosilicate pipette glass</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>BF150-86-10HP</td>
			<td>Pulled to desired specifications using pipette pulling machine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flaming/Brown Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>P-97</td>
			<td>Fabricates micropipettes for electrophysiology recording</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Kimwipes Kimtech wipes</td>
			<td>Kimberly-Clark</td>
			<td>34120</td>
			<td>Delicate task lint-free wipers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Axon Instruments MultiClamp 700B Headstage CV-7B</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>1-CV-7B</td>
			<td>Current clamp and voltage clamp headstage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MP-285 Motorized Manipulator with Tabletop Controller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>MP-285/T</td>
			<td>Control for headstage on electrophysiology rig</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fiber-Coupled LED (Green)</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>M530F2</td>
			<td>Fiber optic cable paired with green LED</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cluster Bipolar Electrode (25&#181;m diameter)</td>
			<td>FHC</td>
			<td>30207</td>
			<td>Bipolar stimulating electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ISO-Flex Stimulator</td>
			<td>A.M.P.I. (Israel)&#160;</td>
			<td>Contact manufacturer</td>
			<td>Flexible stimulus isolator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Axon Instruments 700B Multipatch Amplifier</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>2500-0157</td>
			<td>Amplifier for voltage- and current-clamp recording&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Digidata 1322A digitizer</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>2500-135</td>
			<td>Data acquisition system for electrophysiology recording</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Axio Examiner.A1</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>491404-0001-000&#160;</td>
			<td>Microscope for electrophysiology</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Micro-g Lab Table</td>
			<td>TMC</td>
			<td>63-533</td>
			<td>Air table for electrophysiology microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Inspiron 620 Personal Desktop Computer with Windows 7 64-bit</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>D06D001</td>
			<td>Computer running electrophysiology software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">c2400 CCD camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>70826-5</td>
			<td>Charge-coupled device camera for electrophysiology imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">7 O&#39;Clock Super Platinum Stainless Razorblades</td>
			<td>Gillette</td>
			<td>CMM01049</td>
			<td>Platinum-coated stainless razor blades</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Transfer Pipets</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-711-7M</td>
			<td>Disposable Polyethylene transfer pipets</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparations and protocols for whole cell patch clamp recording of xenopus laevis tectal neurons

O circuito de retinotectal de girino Xenopus , composto de células ganglionares da retina (RGCs) no olho que formam sinapses diretamente sobre os neurônios no tectum óptica, é um modelo popular para estudar circuitos neurais como auto-montagem. A capacidade de realizar toda a célula gravações de braçadeira do remendo de neurônios tectal e a gravar respostas RGC-evocada, ou na vivo ou utilizando uma preparação de todo o cérebro, tem gerado uma grande massa de dados de alta resolução sobre os mecanismos subjacentes normal e formação de circuito anormal e a função. Aqui descrevemos como executar a in vivo preparação, a preparação original de todo o cérebro, e mais recentemente desenvolveram a preparação de fatia horizontal do cérebro para a obtenção de gravações de grampo celular remendo de neurônios tectal. Cada preparação tem vantagens exclusivas experimentais. A preparação na vivo permite a gravação da resposta direta dos neurônios tectal a estímulos visuais projetadas sobre o olho. A preparação de todo o cérebro permite que os axônios RGC ser ativado em uma forma altamente controlada, e a preparação de fatia do cérebro horizontal permite a gravação de em todas as camadas do tectum.

Para gravar as respostas evocadas de luz um flash de todo campo de luz é projetado na retina enquanto a resposta resultante é gravada a partir de neurônios tectal individuais(Figura 4). Este protocolo particular é projetado para medir tanto a resposta do neurônio à luz activar ("no" resposta) e em seguida desligar 15 s mais tarde para medir a "resposta fora." Tectal neurônios normalmente exibem robusto e desativar respostas (modo de b...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons at JoVE.com

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

Neste artigo, discutimos três cérebro as preparações para a gravação de grampo celular patch para estudar o circuito retinotectal de girinos de Xenopus laevis . Cada preparação, com suas próprias vantagens específicas, contribui para a rastreabilidade experimental da larva Xenopus como um modelo para estudar a função do circuito neural.

Preparações e protocolos para toda célula Patch Clamp gravação de neurônios Tectal Xenopus laevis

The Xenopus tadpole retinotectal circuit, comprised of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the eye which form synapses directly onto neurons in the optic ...

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Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

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Neuroscience

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

9.4K visualizações.  University of Wyoming. Neste artigo, discutimos três cérebro as preparações para a gravação de grampo celular patch para estudar o circuito retinotectal de girinos de Xenopus laevis . Cada preparação, com suas próprias vantagens específicas, contribui para a rastreabilidade experimental da larva Xenopus como um modelo para estudar a função do circuito neural.

Vídeo: Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

Neural Explant Cultures from Xenopus laevis

The complex process of axon guidance is largely driven by the growth cone, which is the dynamic motile structure at the tip of the growing axon. During axon outgrowth, the growth cone must integrate multiple sources of guidance cue information to modulate its cytoskeleton in order to propel the growth cone forward and accurately navigate to find its specific targets1. How this integration occurs at the cytoskeletal level is still emerging, and examination of cytoskeletal protein and effector dynamics within the growth cone can allow the elucidation of these mechanisms. Xenopus laevis growth cones are large enough (10-30 microns in diameter) to perform high-resolution live imaging of cytoskeletal dynamics (e.g.2-4 ) and are easy to isolate and manipulate in a lab setting compared to other vertebrates. The frog is a classic model system for developmental neurobiology studies, and important early insights into growth cone microtubule dynamics were initially found using this system5-7 . In this method8, eggs are collected and fertilized in vitro, injected with RNA encoding fluorescently tagged cytoskeletal fusion proteins or other constructs to manipulate gene expression, and then allowed to develop to the neural tube stage. Neural tubes are isolated by dissection and then are cultured, and growth cones on outgrowing neurites are imaged. In this article, we describe how to perform this method, the goal of which is to culture Xenopus laevis growth cones for subsequent high-resolution image analysis. While we provide the example of +TIP fusion protein EB1-GFP, this method can be applied to any number of proteins to elucidate their behaviors within the growth cone.

Neural Explant Cultures from Xenopus laevis

Culturing neural explants from dissected Xenopus laevis embryos that express fluorescent fusion proteins allows for imaging of growth cone cytoskeletal dynamics.

Neurais culturas de explante de<em&gt; Xenopus laevis</em

The complex process of axon guidance is largely driven by the growth cone, which is the dynamic motile structure at the tip of the growing axon. During ...

Neurociência

Dissection, Culture, and Analysis of Xenopus laevis Embryonic Retinal Tissue

The process by which the anterior region of the neural plate gives rise to the vertebrate retina continues to be a major focus of both clinical and basic research. In addition to the obvious medical relevance for understanding and treating retinal disease, the development of the vertebrate retina continues to serve as an important and elegant model system for understanding neuronal cell type determination and differentiation1-16. The neural retina consists of six discrete cell types (ganglion, amacrine, horizontal, photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and M&uuml;ller glial cells) arranged in stereotypical layers, a pattern that is largely conserved among all vertebrates 12,14-18.
While studying the retina in the intact developing embryo is clearly required for understanding how this complex organ develops from a protrusion of the forebrain into a layered structure, there are many questions that benefit from employing approaches using primary cell culture of presumptive retinal cells 7,19-23. For example, analyzing cells from tissues removed and dissociated at different stages allows one to discern the state of specification of individual cells at different developmental stages, that is, the fate of the cells in the absence of interactions with neighboring tissues 8,19-22,24-33. Primary cell culture also allows the investigator to treat the culture with specific reagents and analyze the results on a single cell level 5,8,21,24,27-30,33-39. Xenopus laevis, a classic model system for the study of early neural development 19,27,29,31-32,40-42, serves as a particularly suitable system for retinal primary cell culture 10,38,43-45.
Presumptive retinal tissue is accessible from the earliest stages of development, immediately following neural induction 25,38,43. In addition, given that each cell in the embryo contains a supply of yolk, retinal cells can be cultured in a very simple defined media consisting of a buffered salt solution, thus removing the confounding effects of incubation or other sera-based products 10,24,44-45.
However, the isolation of the retinal tissue from surrounding tissues and the subsequent processing is challenging. Here, we present a method for the dissection and dissociation of retinal cells in Xenopus laevis that will be used to prepare primary cell cultures that will, in turn, be analyzed for calcium activity and gene expression at the resolution of single cells. While the topic presented in this paper is the analysis of spontaneous calcium transients, the technique is broadly applicable to a wide array of research questions and approaches (Figure 1).

Dissection, Culture, and Analysis of Xenopus laevis Embryonic Retinal Tissue

Xenopus laevis provides an ideal model system for studying cell fate specification and physiological function of individual retinal cells in primary cell culture. Here we present a technique for dissecting retinal tissues and generating primary cell cultures that are imaged for calcium activity and analyzed by in situ hybridization.

Dissecção, Cultura, Análise e de<em&gt; Xenopus laevis</em&gt; Tecido embrionário da retina

The process by which  the anterior region of the neural plate gives rise to the vertebrate retina  continues to be a major focus of both clinical and ...

Whole Cell Patch Clamp for Investigating the Mechanisms of Infrared Neural Stimulation

It has been demonstrated in recent years that pulsed, infrared laser light can be used to elicit electrical responses in neural tissue, independent of any further modification of the target tissue. Infrared neural stimulation has been reported in a variety of peripheral and sensory neural tissue in vivo, with particular interest shown in stimulation of neurons in the auditory nerve. However, while INS has been shown to work in these settings, the mechanism (or mechanisms) by which infrared light causes neural excitation is currently not well understood. The protocol presented here describes a whole cell patch clamp method designed to facilitate the investigation of infrared neural stimulation in cultured primary auditory neurons. By thoroughly characterizing the response of these cells to infrared laser illumination in vitro under controlled conditions, it may be possible to gain an improved understanding of the fundamental physical and biochemical processes underlying infrared neural stimulation.

Infrared nerve stimulation has been proposed as an alternative to electrical stimulation in a range of nerve types, including those associated with the auditory system. This protocol describes a patch clamp method for studying the mechanism of infrared nerve stimulation in a culture of primary auditory neurons.

Todo patch clamp celular para investigar os mecanismos de estimulação neural Infrared

It has been  demonstrated in recent years that pulsed, infrared laser light can be used to  elicit electrical responses in neural tissue, independent of ...

Isolation of Sensory Neurons of Aplysia californica for Patch Clamp Recordings of Glutamatergic Currents

The marine gastropod mollusk Aplysia californica has a venerable history as a model of nervous system function, with particular significance in studies of learning and memory. The typical preparations for such studies are ones in which the sensory and motoneurons are left intact in a minimally dissected animal, or a technically elaborate neuronal co-culture of individual sensory and motoneurons. Less common is the isolated neuronal preparation in which small clusters of nominally homogeneous neurons are dissociated into single cells in short term culture. Such isolated cells are useful for the biophysical characterization of ion currents using patch clamp techniques, and targeted modulation of these conductances. A protocol for preparing such cultures is described. The protocol takes advantage of the easily identifiable glutamatergic sensory neurons of the pleural and buccal ganglia, and describes their dissociation and minimal maintenance in culture for several days without serum.

Isolation of Sensory Neurons of Aplysia californica for Patch Clamp Recordings of Glutamatergic Currents

We describe the dissection of the nervous system of the marine sea hare Aplysia after anesthesia, the isolation of neurons for short term-tissue culture, and recordings of single cell ion currents via the patch clamp technique.

Isolamento de neurônios sensoriais de<em&gt; Aplysia californica</em&gt; Para Remendo Recordings Grampo de Correntes glutamatérgicos

The marine gastropod mollusk Aplysia californica has a venerable  history as a model of nervous system function, with particular significance in  studies ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings from Morphologically- and Neurochemically-identified Hippocampal Interneurons

GABAergic inhibitory interneurons play a central role within neuronal circuits of the brain. Interneurons comprise a small subset of the neuronal population (10-20%), but show a high level of physiological, morphological, and neurochemical heterogeneity, reflecting their diverse functions. Therefore, investigation of interneurons provides important insights into the organization principles and function of neuronal circuits. This, however, requires an integrated physiological and neuroanatomical approach for the selection and identification of individual interneuron types. Whole-cell patch-clamp recording from acute brain slices of transgenic animals, expressing fluorescent proteins under the promoters of interneuron-specific markers, provides an efficient method to target and electrophysiologically characterize intrinsic and synaptic properties of specific interneuron types. Combined with intracellular dye labeling, this approach can be extended with post-hoc morphological and immunocytochemical analysis, enabling systematic identification of recorded neurons. These methods can be tailored to suit a broad range of scientific questions regarding functional properties of diverse types of cortical neurons.

Cortical networks are controlled by a small, but diverse set of inhibitory interneurons. Functional investigation of interneurons therefore requires targeted recording and rigorous identification. Described here is a combined approach involving whole-cell recordings from single or synaptically-coupled pairs of neurons with intracellular labeling, post-hoc morphological and immunocytochemical analysis.

Whole-cell Recordings patch-clamp de Morphologically- e identificados Neuroquimicamente hipocampo Interneurônios

GABAergic inhibitory interneurons play a central role within neuronal circuits of the brain. Interneurons comprise a small subset of the neuronal ...

Recording Light-evoked Postsynaptic Responses in Neurons in Dark-adapted, Mouse Retinal Slice Preparations Using Patch Clamp Techniques

The retina is the gateway to the visual system. To understand visual signal processing mechanisms, we investigate retinal neural network functions. Retinal neurons in the network comprise of numerous subtypes. More than 10 subtypes of bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and amacrine cells have been identified by morphological studies. Multiple subtypes of retinal neurons are thought to encode distinct features of visual signaling, such as motion and color, and form multiple neural pathways. However, the functional roles of each neuron in visual signal processing are not fully understood. The patch clamp method is useful to address this fundamental question. Here, a protocol to record light-evoked synaptic responses in mouse retinal neurons using patch clamp recordings in dark-adapted conditions is provided. The mouse eyes are dark-adapted O/N, and retinal slice preparations are dissected in a dark room using infrared illumination and viewers. Infrared light does not activate mouse photoreceptors and thus preserves their light responsiveness. Patch clamp is used to record light-evoked responses in retinal neurons. A fluorescent dye is injected during recordings to characterize neuronal morphological subtypes. This procedure enables us to determine the physiological functions of each neuron in the mouse retina.

We will demonstrate how to prepare retinal slices from the mouse eye and record light responses in retinal neurons. The entire procedure is conducted in dark-adapted conditions.

Gravação Light-provocou respostas pós-sinápticos nos neurônios em Dark-adaptados, Preparações da retina do rato fatia usando técnicas Grampo patch

The retina is the gateway to the visual system. To understand visual signal processing mechanisms, we investigate retinal neural network functions. ...

Perforated Patch-clamp Recording of Mouse Olfactory Sensory Neurons in Intact Neuroepithelium: Functional Analysis of Neurons Expressing an Identified Odorant Receptor

Analyzing the physiological responses of olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) when stimulated with specific ligands is critical to understand the basis of olfactory-driven behaviors and their modulation. These coding properties depend heavily on the initial interaction between odor molecules and the olfactory receptor (OR) expressed in the OSNs. The identity, specificity and ligand spectrum of the expressed OR are critical. The probability to find the ligand of the OR expressed in an OSN chosen randomly within the epithelium is very low. To address this challenge, this protocol uses genetically tagged mice expressing the fluorescent protein GFP under the control of the promoter of defined ORs. OSNs are located in a tight and organized epithelium lining the nasal cavity, with neighboring cells influencing their maturation and function. Here we describe a method to isolate an intact olfactory epithelium and record through patch-clamp recordings the properties of OSNs expressing defined odorant receptors. The protocol allows one to characterize OSN membrane properties while keeping the influence of the neighboring tissue. Analysis of patch-clamp results yields&#160;a precise quantification of ligand/OR interactions, transduction pathways and pharmacology, OSNs&#39; coding properties and their modulation at the membrane level.&#160;

Analyzing the physiological properties of olfactory sensory neurons still faces technical limitations. Here we record them through perforated patch-clamp in an intact preparation of the olfactory epithelium in gene-targeted mice. This technique allows the characterization of membrane properties and responses to specific ligands of neurons expressing defined olfactory receptors.

Perfurado gravação patch-clamp de rato Olfactory neurônios sensoriais na Intact neuroepitélio: Análise Funcional do Neurônios Expressando uma Odorant Receptor Identificados

Analyzing the physiological responses of olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) when stimulated with specific ligands is critical to understand the basis of ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings in Brain Slices

Whole-cell patch-clamp recording is an electrophysiological technique that allows the study of the&#160;electrical properties of a substantial part of the neuron. In this configuration, the micropipette is in tight contact with the cell membrane, which prevents current leakage and thereby provides more accurate ionic current measurements than the previously used intracellular sharp electrode recording method. Classically, whole-cell recording can be performed on neurons in various types of preparations, including cell culture models, dissociated neurons, neurons in brain slices, and in intact anesthetized or awake animals. In summary, this technique has immensely contributed to the understanding of passive and active biophysical properties of excitable cells. A major advantage of this technique is that it provides information on how specific manipulations (e.g., pharmacological, experimenter-induced plasticity) may alter specific neuronal functions or channels in real-time. Additionally, significant opening of the plasma membrane allows the internal pipette solution to freely diffuse into the cytoplasm, providing means for introducing drugs, e.g., agonists or antagonists of specific intracellular proteins, and manipulating these targets without altering their functions in neighboring cells. This article will focus on whole-cell recording performed on neurons in brain slices,&#160;a preparation that has the advantage of recording neurons in relatively well preserved brain circuits, i.e., in a physiologically relevant context. In particular,&#160;when combined with appropriate pharmacology, this technique is a powerful tool allowing identification of specific neuroadaptations that occurred following any type of experiences, such as learning, exposure to drugs of abuse, and stress. In summary, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices provide means to measure in ex vivo preparation long-lasting changes in neuronal functions that have developed in intact awake animals.

This protocol describes basic procedural steps for performing whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. This technique allows the study of&#160;the electrical behavior of neurons, and when performed in brain slices, allows the assessment of various neuronal functions from neurons that are still integrated in relatively well preserved brain circuits.

Gravações de células inteiras de patch-clamp em Brain Slices

Whole-cell patch-clamp recording is an electrophysiological technique that allows the study of the&#160;electrical properties of a substantial part of the ...

Recording Temperature-induced Neuronal Activity through Monitoring Calcium Changes in the Olfactory Bulb of Xenopus laevis

The olfactory system, specialized in the detection, integration and processing of chemical molecules is likely the most thoroughly studied sensory system. However, there is piling evidence that olfaction is not solely limited to chemical sensitivity, but also includes temperature sensitivity. Premetamorphic Xenopus laevis are translucent animals, with protruding nasal cavities deprived of the cribriform plate separating the nose and the olfactory bulb. These characteristics make them well suited for studying olfaction, and particularly thermosensitivity. The present article describes the complete procedure for measuring temperature responses in the olfactory bulb of X. laevis larvae. Firstly, the electroporation of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) is performed with spectrally distinct dyes loaded into the nasal cavities in order to stain their axon terminals in the bulbar neuropil. The differential staining between left and right receptor neurons serves to identify the &#947;-glomerulus as the only structure innervated by contralateral presynaptic afferents. Secondly, the electroporation is combined with focal bolus loading in the olfactory bulb in order to stain mitral cells and their dendrites. The 3D brain volume is then scanned under line-illumination microscopy for the acquisition of fast calcium imaging data while small temperature drops are induced at the olfactory epithelium. Lastly, the post-acquisition analysis allows the morphological reconstruction of the thermosensitive network comprising the &#947;-glomerulus and its innervating mitral cells, based on specific temperature-induced Ca2+ traces. Using chemical odorants as stimuli in addition to temperature jumps enables the comparison between thermosensitive and chemosensitive networks in the olfactory bulb.

Recording Temperature-induced Neuronal Activity through Monitoring Calcium Changes in the Olfactory Bulb of Xenopus laevis

Here we describe a protocol for measuring and analyzing temperature responses in the olfactory bulb of Xenopus laevis. Olfactory receptor neurons and mitral cells are differentially stained, after which calcium changes are recorded, reflecting a sensitivity of some neural networks in the bulb to temperature drops induced at the nose.

Gravação induzida pela temperatura actividade neuronal através de monitoramento das alterações de cálcio no bulbo olfativo de<em&gt; Xenopus laevis</em

The olfactory system, specialized in the detection, integration and processing of chemical molecules is likely the most thoroughly studied sensory system. ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

Over the past decade, channelrhodopsins became indispensable in neuroscientific research where they are used as tools to non-invasively manipulate electrical processes in target cells. In this context, ion selectivity of a channelrhodopsin is of particular importance. This article describes the investigation of chloride selectivity for a recently identified anion-conducting channelrhodopsin of Proteomonas sulcata via electrophysiological patch-clamp recordings on HEK293 cells. The experimental procedure for measuring light-gated photocurrents demands a fast switchable &#8211; ideally monochromatic &#8211; light source coupled into the microscope of an otherwise conventional patch-clamp setup. Preparative procedures prior to the experiment are outlined involving preparation of buffered solutions, considerations on liquid junction potentials, seeding and transfection of cells, and pulling of patch pipettes. The actual recording of current-voltage relations to determine the reversal potentials for different chloride concentrations takes place 24 h to 48 h after transfection. Finally, electrophysiological data are analyzed with respect to theoretical considerations of chloride conduction.

This article describes how the ion selectivity of channelrhodopsin is determined with electrophysiological whole-cell patch-clamp recordings using HEK293 cells. Here, the experimental procedure for investigating chloride selectivity of an anion-selective channelrhodopsin is demonstrated. However, the procedure is transferable to other channelrhodopsins of distinct selectivity.

Preparações e protocolos para toda célula Patch Clamp gravação de neurônios Tectal Xenopus laevis

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