Este trabalho foi apoiado pelo Programa de Pesquisa Intramural dos Institutos Nacionais de Saúde, o Instituto Eunice Kennedy Shriver Nacional de Saúde Infantil e Desenvolvimento Humano (HD008913 subvenção para C.-HL) e do Centro de Tecnologia da Informação (PGM, NP, ESM e MM).

<ol>
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Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+circuits+and+their+variations+within+different+columns+in+the+visual+system+of+Drosophila.">Synaptic circuits and their variations within different columns in the visual system of Drosophila.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 112 (44), 13711-13716 (2015).</li><li>Gao, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neural+substrate+of+spectral+preference+in+Drosophila.">The neural substrate of spectral preference in Drosophila.</a> Neuron. 60 (2), 328-342 (2008).</li><li>Karuppudurai, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+hard-wired+glutamatergic+circuit+pools+and+relays+UV+signals+to+mediate+spectral+preference+in+Drosophila.">A hard-wired glutamatergic circuit pools and relays UV signals to mediate spectral preference in Drosophila.</a> Neuron. 81 (3), 603-615 (2014).</li><li>Strother, J. A., Nern, A., Reiser, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+observation+of+ON+and+OFF+pathways+in+the+Drosophila+visual+system.">Direct observation of ON and OFF pathways in the Drosophila visual system.</a> Curr Biol. 24 (9), 976-983 (2014).</li><li>Ting, C. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Photoreceptor-derived+activin+promotes+dendritic+termination+and+restricts+the+receptive+fields+of+first-order+interneurons+in+Drosophila.">Photoreceptor-derived activin promotes dendritic termination and restricts the receptive fields of first-order interneurons in Drosophila.</a> Neuron. 81 (4), 830-846 (2014).</li><li>Ting, C. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tiling+of+R7+axons+in+the+Drosophila+visual+system+is+mediated+both+by+transduction+of+an+activin+signal+to+the+nucleus+and+by+mutual+repulsion.">Tiling of R7 axons in the Drosophila visual system is mediated both by transduction of an activin signal to the nucleus and by mutual repulsion.</a> Neuron. 56 (5), 793-806 (2007).</li><li>Peng, H., Ruan, Z., Long, F., Simpson, J. H., Myers, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=V3D+enables+real-time+3D+visualization+and+quantitative+analysis+of+large-scale+biological+image+data+sets.">V3D enables real-time 3D visualization and quantitative analysis of large-scale biological image data sets.</a> Nat Biotechnol. 28 (4), 348-353 (2010).</li><li>Takemura, S. Y., Lu, Z., Meinertzhagen, I. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+circuits+of+the+Drosophila+optic+lobe:+the+input+terminals+to+the+medulla.">Synaptic circuits of the Drosophila optic lobe: the input terminals to the medulla.</a> J Comp Neurol. 509 (5), 493-513 (2008).</li><li>Takemura, S. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cholinergic+circuits+integrate+neighboring+visual+signals+in+a+Drosophila+motion+detection+pathway.">Cholinergic circuits integrate neighboring visual signals in a Drosophila motion detection pathway.</a> Curr Biol. 21 (24), 2077-2084 (2011).</li><li>Keller, P. J., Schmidt, A. D., Wittbrodt, J., Stelzer, E. 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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+analysis+of+NeuronJ+tracing+data.">Automated analysis of NeuronJ tracing data.</a> Cytometry A. 75 (4), 371-376 (2009).</li><li>Meijering, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+and+validation+of+a+tool+for+neurite+tracing+and+analysis+in+fluorescence+microscopy+images.">Design and validation of a tool for neurite tracing and analysis in fluorescence microscopy images.</a> Cytometry A. 58 (2), 167-176 (2004).</li><li>Pool, M., Thiemann, J., Bar-Or, A., Fournier, A. 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L., Meier, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nonparametric+Estimation+from+Incomplete+Observations.">Nonparametric Estimation from Incomplete Observations.</a> JASA. 53, 457-481 (1958).</li></ol>

Os autores não têm nada a revelar.

Aqui, vamos mostrar como imagem e analisar mandris dendríticas dos neurônios da medula Drosophila. A primeira seção, dual-view de imagem, descreve a deconvolução e combinação de duas pilhas de imagens em uma pilha de imagens de alta resolução. A segunda seção, o rastreamento dendrite e registro, descreve a detecção e registo das dendrites dos neurónios da medula para a matriz coluna de referência. A terceira seção, a análise dendrítica, descreve o uso de scripts personalizados para analisar ...

Durante o desenvolvimento, os neurônios dendritos elaborados em complexos mas estereotipados padrões ramificados para formar sinapses com os seus parceiros pré-sinápticos. padrões de ramificação dendríticas correlacionar com a identidade e as funções neuronais. Os locais de mandris dendríticas determinar o tipo de entradas pré-sinápticos que recebem, enquanto o dendríticas ramificação tamanhos de complexidade e de campo governar o número de entrada. Assim, as propriedades morfológicas dendríticas constituem factores determinantes para a conectividade sináptica e computação neuronal. Em muitas regiões do cérebro complexas, tais como os lóbulos óptica da mosca e a retina dos vertebrados, circuitos sinápticos são organizadas em colunas e camadas para facilitar o processamento de informação 1, 2. Em tal organização coluna e camada, os neurónios pré-sinápticos de distintos axónios projecto modalidade para terminar numa camada específica (os chamados direccionamento específico de camada) e para formar uma matriz bi-dimensional ordenada (de modo-Called mapa topográfico), enquanto os neurônios pós-sinápticos estender dendritos de tamanhos adequados em camadas específicas para receber entradas pré-sinápticas dos tipos e números corretos. Enquanto axonal direcionamento para as camadas e colunas tem sido bem estudada 3, 4, muito menos se sabe sobre como dendritos são encaminhadas para camadas específicas e expandir adequadamente dimensionada campos receptivos para formar conexões sinápticas com os parceiros pré-sinápticos corretos 5. A dificuldade de imagem e quantificar dendrítica direcionamento para as camadas e colunas tem dificultado o estudo do desenvolvimento dendrítica em estruturas cerebrais colunar e laminados. Drosophila neurônios da medula é um modelo ideal para o estudo de roteamento dendrítica e montagem de circuito em colunas e camadas. O neurópilo mosca medula é organizado como uma estrutura 3D de 10 camadas e aproximadamente 750 colunas. Cada coluna é inervado por um conjunto de fibras aferentes, incluindo photoreceptors R7 / R8 e neurônios da lâmina L1 - L5, cujos terminais axonal formar mapas topográficos de uma forma específica de camada 6. Cerca de 38 tipos de neurônios da medula estão presentes em cada coluna de medula e dendrites elaboradas em camadas específicas e com tamanhos de campo adequados para receber as entradas a partir destes aferentes 7. Os circuitos sinápticos na medula foram reconstruídos no nível do microscópio electrónico; Assim, as parcerias sinápticas estão bem estabelecidos 7, 8. Além disso, as ferramentas genéticas para a marcação de vários tipos de neurónios de medula são disponíveis 9, 10, 11. Ao examinar três tipos de transmedulla (TM) neurônios (Tm2, Tm9 e TM20), já anteriormente identificados dois atributos específicos de células do tipo-dendríticas: (i) neurônios Tm projetam dendrites quer na direcção anterior ou posterior (proj planardirecção exão), dependendo dos tipos de células e (ii) dendrites dos neurónios de medula terminam em camadas específicas da medula de uma forma específica de célula do tipo-(terminação específica de camada) 12. Planar direção de projeção e terminação específica camadas são suficientes para diferenciar estes três tipos de neurônios Tm, enquanto que mutações que perturbam respostas TM para camada e coluna pistas prejudica aspectos distintos desses atributos. Aqui, apresentamos um fluxo de trabalho completo para examinar o padrão dendrítica de neurônios da medula Drosophila em colunas e camadas (Figura 1). Em primeiro lugar, vamos mostrar um método de imagem dual-view, que usa software personalizado para combinar dois imagem confocal pilhas para gerar imagens isotrópicas de alta qualidade. Este método necessita apenas de microscopia confocal convencional para gerar imagens de alta qualidade que permitem o rastreio de confiança de ramos dendríticos, sem recorrer à microscopia de super-resolução, tals STED (Emissão Estimulada de Esgotamento) ou iluminação estrutural. Em segundo lugar, apresentamos um método para rastrear mandris dendríticas e para registrar os traços neurite resultantes para uma matriz coluna de referência. Em terceiro lugar, podemos mostrar os métodos computacionais para a extracção de informação sobre a direcção de projecção planar e terminação específica de camada de dendritos, bem como para derivar estimativas para a ramificação e de terminação frequências dendríticas. Juntos, estes métodos permitem a caracterização dos padrões dendríticas em 3D, a classificação de tipos de células com base em morfologias dendríticas, e a identificação de possíveis defeitos em mutantes.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1632">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:464px;">Software</td>
			<td style="width:301px;"></td>
			<td style="width:227px;"></td>
			<td style="width:640px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Huygens Professional&#160;</td>
			<td>Scientific Volume Imaging</td>
			<td>version 16.05</td>
			<td>for image deconvolution (https://svi.nl).&#160; commercial software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MIPAV</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>version 7.3.0</td>
			<td>for image recombination and registration (http://mipav.cit.nih.gov/.).&#160; freeware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MIPAV plugin: PlugInDrosophilaRetinalRegistration.class</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>freeware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MIPAV plugin: PlugInDrosophilaStandardColumnRegistration.class</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>freeware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Imaris</td>
			<td>Bitplane</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for tracing neurites and assigning reference points for image registration (http://www.bitplane.com). commercial software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vaa3D</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for visualizing swc files (https://github.com/Vaa3D/release/releases/).&#160; freeware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Matlab</td>
			<td>Mathworks</td>
			<td>R2014b</td>
			<td>for morphometric analysis of dendrites (http://www.mathworks.com).&#160; commercial software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Matlab toolbox: TREES1.14</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>v1.14</td>
			<td>for analyzing dendritic morphometric parameters (http://www.treestoolbox.org/download.html).&#160; freeware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Matlab toolbox: Dendritic_Tree_Toolbox</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>v1.0</td>
			<td>for calculating morphometric parameters (https://science.nichd.nih.gov/confluence/display/snc/Data+collections+for+imagines+combination+and+standardize+column+registration). Freeware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sample files</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">SWC file definition</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://www.neuronland.org/NLMorphologyConverter/MorphologyFormats/SWC/Spec.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">The codes and sample files for image combination and registration</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://science.nichd.nih.gov/confluence/display/snc/Data+collections+for+imagines+combination+and+standardize+column+registration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Reference point example&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://science.nichd.nih.gov/confluence/download/attachments/117216914/points.csv?version=1&#38;modificationDate=1471880596000&#38;api=v2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Computer system</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MS Windows Windows 7 x64 or Macintosh OS X 10.7 or later</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3GHz 64-bit quad-core processor, 16G RAM (minimal)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Optional: Quadro4000&#160; (or above) graphic card</td>
			<td>Nvidia</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for stereographic visualization of dendrites.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Optional: NVIDIA 3D vision2</td>
			<td>Nvidia</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://www.nvidia.com/object/3d-vision-main.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Optional: 120 Hz LCD display for NVIDIA 3D vision2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://www.nvidia.com/object/3d-vision-system-requirements.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Reagents for imaging</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">24B10 antibody</td>
			<td>The Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank</td>
			<td>24B10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">GFP Tag Antibody</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>G10362</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Goat anti-Rabbit (H+L), Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A11034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Goat anti-Mouse (H+L), Alexa Fluor 568</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A21124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">VECTASHIELD Antifade Mounting Medium</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>H-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mounting&#160;Clay&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S04179</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">70% glycerol in 1X PBS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cover glasses, high performance, D=0.17mm</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>474030-9000-000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analyzing dendritic morphology in columns and layers

Em muitas regiões do sistema nervoso central, tais como os lóbulos óptica da mosca e do córtex vertebrado, circuitos sinápticos são organizados em camadas e colunas para facilitar a conexão cerebral durante o desenvolvimento e processamento da informação nos animais desenvolvidos. neurônios pós-sinápticos dendritos elaborados nos padrões específicos do tipo em camadas específicas para sinapse com terminais pré-sinápticos apropriados. O neurópilo mosca medula é composta de 10 camadas e cerca de 750 colunas; cada coluna é enervado pelo dendritos de mais de 38 tipos de neurônios da medula, que combinam com os terminais axonal de cerca de 7 tipos de aferentes de uma forma específica do tipo. Este relatório detalha os procedimentos para a imagem e analisar dendrites dos neurónios da medula. O fluxo de trabalho inclui três seções: (i) a secção de imagem dual-view combina duas pilhas de imagens confocal coletadas em orientações ortogonais em um de alta resolução de imagem 3D de dendrites; (Ii) a dendrite rastreamento e secção de registo traça dendríticamandris em 3D e registra traços dendríticas para a matriz coluna de referência; (Iii) a secção de análise dendrítica analisa padrões dendríticas em relação às colunas e camadas, incluindo terminação e de projecção planar direcção específica da camada de mandris dendríticas, e obtém estimativas de ramificação e de terminação frequências dendríticas. Os protocolos utilizam plugins personalizados construídos na MIPAV open-source (Medical Imaging processamento, análise e visualização) da plataforma e personalizadas caixas de ferramentas na linguagem laboratório matriz. Juntos, estes protocolos de fornecer um fluxo de trabalho completo para analisar o encaminhamento dendríticas de medula neurónios de Drosophila em camadas e colunas, para identificar os tipos de células, e para determinar defeitos de mutantes.

Usando o procedimento de imagem dupla vista aqui apresentado, uma mosca contendo neurónios do cérebro TM20 escassamente marcado foi fotografada em duas direcções ortogonais. Antes da imagem, o cérebro foi corado com anticorpos primários e secundários apropriados para visualizar GFP e fotorreceptoras axônios membrana-tethered. Para imagiologia, o cérebro foi montado pela primeira vez na orientação horizontal (Figura 2A, B). Um neurónio TM20 marcado com GFP e o...

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Analyzing Dendritic Morphology in Columns and Layers

Aqui, mostramos como analisar roteamento dendrítica de neurônios da medula Drosophila em colunas e camadas. O fluxo de trabalho inclui uma técnica de imagem dual-vista a melhorar a qualidade de imagem e ferramentas computacionais para a detecção, registrar mandris dendríticas para a matriz coluna de referência e para analisar as estruturas dendríticas no espaço 3D.

Analisando dendríticas Morfologia em Colunas e Camadas

In many regions of the central nervous systems, such as the fly optic lobes and the vertebrate cortex, synaptic circuits are organized in layers and ...

analyzing-dendritic-morphology-in-columns-and-layers

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

9.2K visualizações.  National Institutes of Health (NIH).  Aqui, mostramos como analisar roteamento dendrítica de neurônios da medula Drosophila em colunas e camadas. O fluxo de trabalho inclui uma técnica de imagem dual-vista a melhorar a qualidade de imagem e ferramentas computacionais para a detecção, registrar mandris dendríticas para a matriz coluna de referência e para analisar as estruturas dendríticas no espaço 3D. 

Vídeo: Analyzing Dendritic Morphology in Columns and Layers

Automated Sholl Analysis of Digitized Neuronal Morphology at Multiple Scales

Neuronal morphology plays a significant role in determining how neurons function and communicate1-3. Specifically, it affects the ability of neurons to receive inputs from other cells2 and contributes to the propagation of action potentials4,5. The morphology of the neurites also affects how information is processed. The diversity of dendrite morphologies facilitate local and long range signaling and allow individual neurons or groups of neurons to carry out specialized functions within the neuronal network6,7. Alterations in dendrite morphology, including fragmentation of dendrites and changes in branching patterns, have been observed in a number of disease states, including Alzheimer's disease8, schizophrenia9,10, and mental retardation11. The ability to both understand the factors that shape dendrite morphologies and to identify changes in dendrite morphologies is essential in the understanding of nervous system function and dysfunction.
Neurite morphology is often analyzed by Sholl analysis and by counting the number of neurites and the number of branch tips. This analysis is generally applied to dendrites, but it can also be applied to axons. Performing this analysis by hand is both time consuming and inevitably introduces variability due to experimenter bias and inconsistency. The Bonfire program is a semi-automated approach to the analysis of dendrite and axon morphology that builds upon available open-source morphological analysis tools. Our program enables the detection of local changes in dendrite and axon branching behaviors by performing Sholl analysis on subregions of the neuritic arbor. For example, Sholl analysis is performed on both the neuron as a whole as well as on each subset of processes (primary, secondary, terminal, root, etc.) Dendrite and axon patterning is influenced by a number of intracellular and extracellular factors, many acting locally. Thus, the resulting arbor morphology is a result of specific processes acting on specific neurites, making it necessary to perform morphological analysis on a smaller scale in order to observe these local variations12.
The Bonfire program requires the use of two open-source analysis tools, the NeuronJ plugin to ImageJ and NeuronStudio. Neurons are traced in ImageJ, and NeuronStudio is used to define the connectivity between neurites. Bonfire contains a number of custom scripts written in MATLAB (MathWorks) that are used to convert the data into the appropriate format for further analysis, check for user errors, and ultimately perform Sholl analysis. Finally, data are exported into Excel for statistical analysis. A flow chart of the Bonfire program is shown in Figure 1.

We have developed a computer program to analyze neuronal morphology. In combination with two existing open source analysis tools, our program performs Sholl analysis and determines the number of neurites, branch points, and neurite tips. The analyses are performed so that local changes in neurite morphology can be observed.

Análise Sholl automatizado de Morfologia Neuronal Digitized em múltiplas escalas

Neuronal morphology plays a significant role in determining how neurons function and communicate1-3.  Specifically, it affects the ability of neurons to ...

Neurociência

Analysis of Dendritic Spine Morphology in Cultured CNS Neurons

Dendritic spines are the sites of the majority of excitatory connections within the brain, and form the post-synaptic 
compartment of synapses. These structures are rich in actin and have been shown to be highly dynamic. In response to classical Hebbian plasticity 
as well as neuromodulatory signals, dendritic spines can change shape and number, which is thought to be critical for the refinement of neural 
circuits and the processing and storage of information within the brain. Within dendritic spines, a complex network of proteins link extracellular 
signals with the actin cyctoskeleton allowing for control of dendritic spine morphology and number. Neuropathological studies have demonstrated that 
a number of disease states, ranging from schizophrenia to autism spectrum disorders, display abnormal dendritic spine morphology or numbers. 
Moreover, recent genetic studies have identified mutations in numerous genes that encode synaptic proteins, leading to suggestions that these 
proteins may contribute to aberrant spine plasticity that, in part, underlie the pathophysiology of these disorders. In order to study the potential 
role of these proteins in controlling dendritic spine morphologies/number, the use of cultured cortical neurons offers several advantages. Firstly, 
this system allows for high-resolution imaging of dendritic spines in fixed cells as well as time-lapse imaging of live cells. Secondly, this in 
vitro system allows for easy manipulation of protein function by expression of mutant proteins, knockdown by shRNA constructs, or pharmacological 
treatments. These techniques allow researchers to begin to dissect the role of disease-associated proteins and to predict how mutations of these 
proteins may function in vivo.

Numerous recent studies have identified mutations in synaptic proteins associated with brain pathologies. Primary cultured cortical neurons offer great flexibility in examining the effects of these disease-associated proteins on dendritic spine morphology and motility.

Análise de Morfologia Spine dendríticas em neurônios cultivados CNS

Dendritic spines are the sites of the majority of excitatory connections within the brain, and form the post-synaptic 
compartment of synapses. These ...

Inducing Dendritic Growth in Cultured Sympathetic Neurons

The shape of the dendritic arbor determines the total synaptic input a neuron can receive 1-3, and influences the types and distribution of these inputs 4-6. Altered patterns of dendritic growth and plasticity are associated with impaired neurobehavioral function in experimental models 7, and are thought to contribute to clinical symptoms observed in both neurodevelopmental disorders 8-10 and neurodegenerative diseases 11-13. Such observations underscore the functional importance of precisely regulating dendritic morphology, and suggest that identifying mechanisms that control dendritic growth will not only advance understanding of how neuronal connectivity is regulated during normal development, but may also provide insight on novel therapeutic strategies for diverse neurological diseases.
Mechanistic studies of dendritic growth would be greatly facilitated by the availability of a model system that allows neurons to be experimentally switched from a state in which they do not extend dendrites to one in which they elaborate a dendritic arbor comparable to that of their in vivo counterparts. Primary cultures of sympathetic neurons dissociated from the superior cervical ganglia (SCG) of perinatal rodents provide such a model. When cultured in defined medium in the absence of serum and ganglionic glial cells, sympathetic neurons extend a single process which is axonal, and this unipolar state persists for weeks to months in culture 14,15. However, the addition of either bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) 16,17 or Matrigel 18 to the culture medium triggers these neurons to extend multiple processes that meet the morphologic, biochemical and functional criteria for dendrites. Sympathetic neurons dissociated from the SCG of perinatal rodents and grown under defined conditions are a homogenous population of neurons 19 that respond uniformly to the dendrite-promoting activity of Matrigel, BMP-7 and other BMPs of the decapentaplegic (dpp) and 60A subfamilies 17,18,20,21. Importantly, Matrigel- and BMP-induced dendrite formation occurs in the absence of changes in cell survival or axonal growth 17,18.
Here, we describe how to set up dissociated cultures of sympathetic neurons derived from the SCG of perinatal rats so that they are responsive to the selective dendrite-promoting activity of Matrigel or BMPs.

We describe a protocol for using bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) or Matrigel to selectively induce dendritic growth in primary sympathetic neurons dissociated from the superior cervical ganglia (SCG) of perinatal rats.

Induzir o crescimento dendrítico no cultivadas neurônios simpáticos

The shape of the dendritic arbor determines the total synaptic input a neuron can receive 1-3, and influences the types and distribution of these inputs ...

The Analysis of Purkinje Cell Dendritic Morphology in Organotypic Slice Cultures

Purkinje cells are an attractive model system for studying dendritic development, because they have an impressive dendritic tree which is strictly oriented in the sagittal plane and develops mostly in the postnatal period in small rodents 3. Furthermore, several antibodies are available which selectively and intensively label Purkinje cells including all processes, with anti-Calbindin D28K being the most widely used. For viewing of dendrites in living cells, mice expressing EGFP selectively in Purkinje cells 11 are available through Jackson labs. Organotypic cerebellar slice cultures cells allow easy experimental manipulation of Purkinje cell dendritic development because most of the dendritic expansion of the Purkinje cell dendritic tree is actually taking place during the culture period 4. We present here a short, reliable and easy protocol for viewing and analyzing the dendritic morphology of Purkinje cells grown in organotypic cerebellar slice cultures. For many purposes, a quantitative evaluation of the Purkinje cell dendritic tree is desirable. We focus here on two parameters, dendritic tree size and branch point numbers, which can be rapidly and easily determined from anti-calbindin stained cerebellar slice cultures. These two parameters yield a reliable and sensitive measure of changes of the Purkinje cell dendritic tree. Using the example of treatments with the protein kinase C (PKC) activator PMA and the metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) we demonstrate how differences in the dendritic development are visualized and quantitatively assessed. The combination of the presence of an extensive dendritic tree, selective and intense immunostaining methods, organotypic slice cultures which cover the period of dendritic growth and a mouse model with Purkinje cell specific EGFP expression make Purkinje cells a powerful model system for revealing the mechanisms of dendritic development.

We present a protocol that permits to view and to quantitatively asses the morphology of the dendritic tree of individual Purkinje cells grown in organotypic cerebellar slice cultures. This protocol is intended to promote studies on the mechanisms of Purkinje cell dendritic development.

A Análise de Purkinje Morfologia de células dendríticas em Culturas fatia organotípicas

Purkinje cells are an attractive model system for studying dendritic development, because they have an impressive dendritic tree which is strictly ...

Visualizing the Effects of a Positive Early Experience, Tactile Stimulation, on Dendritic Morphology and Synaptic Connectivity with Golgi-Cox Staining

To generate longer-term changes in behavior, experiences must be producing stable changes in neuronal morphology and synaptic connectivity. Tactile stimulation is a positive early experience that mimics maternal licking and grooming in the rat. Exposing rat pups to this positive experience can be completed easily and cost-effectively by using highly accessible materials such as a household duster. Using a cross-litter design, pups are either stroked or left undisturbed, for 15 min, three times per day throughout the perinatal period. To measure the neuroplastic changes related to this positive early experience, Golgi-Cox staining of brain tissue is utilized. Owing to the fact that Golgi-Cox impregnation stains a discrete number of neurons rather than all of the cells, staining of the rodent brain with Golgi-Cox solution permits the visualization of entire neuronal elements, including the cell body, dendrites, axons, and dendritic spines. The staining procedure is carried out over several days and requires that the researcher pay close attention to detail. However, once staining is completed, the entire brain has been impregnated and can be preserved indefinitely for ongoing analysis. Therefore, Golgi-Cox staining is a valuable resource for studying experience-dependent plasticity.

This paper describes the procedures for tactile stimulation of rat pups and subsequent Golgi-Cox staining of neuronal morphology. Tactile stimulation is a positive experience that is administered in the perinatal period by stroking pups with a household duster. Golgi-cox staining is a reliable procedure permitting the visualization of entire neurons.

Visualizar os Efeitos de uma experiência precoce positiva, Tátil Estimulação, em dendríticas Morfologia e Synaptic conectividade com Golgi-Cox Coloração

To generate longer-term changes in behavior, experiences must be producing stable changes in neuronal morphology and synaptic connectivity. Tactile ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

Rápido Micro-iontoforese de glutamato e GABA: uma ferramenta útil para investigar Integração Synaptic

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow for an in-depth characterization to identify pathways involved in these events. Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) that are derived from the developing cerebellum are an ideal model system that allows for morphological analyses. Here, we describe a method of how to genetically manipulate CGNs and how to study axono- and dendritogenesis of individual neurons. With this method the effects of RNA interference, overexpression or small molecules can be compared to control neurons. In addition, the rodent cerebellar cortex is an easily accessible in vivo system owing to its predominant postnatal development. We also present an in vivo electroporation technique to genetically manipulate the developing cerebella and describe subsequent cerebellar analyses to assess neuronal morphology and migration.

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Neuronal morphogenesis and migration are crucial events underlying proper brain development. Here, we describe methods to genetically manipulate cultured cerebellar granule neurons and the developing cerebellum for the assessment of morphology and migratory characteristics of neurons.

Manipulação genética de Cerebelar Granule Neurônios<em&gt; In Vitro</em&gt; E<em&gt; In Vivo</em&gt; Estudar Neuronal Morfologia e Migração

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow ...

The Indirect Neuron-astrocyte Coculture Assay: An In Vitro Set-up for the Detailed Investigation of Neuron-glia Interactions

Proper neuronal development and function is the prerequisite of the developing and the adult brain. However, the mechanisms underlying the highly controlled formation and maintenance of complex neuronal networks are not completely understood thus far. The open questions concerning neurons in health and disease are diverse and reaching from understanding the basic development to investigating human related pathologies, e.g.,&#160;Alzheimer&#39;s disease and&#160;Schizophrenia. The most detailed analysis of neurons can be performed in vitro. However, neurons are demanding cells and need the additional support of astrocytes for their long-term survival. This cellular heterogeneity is in conflict with the aim to dissect the analysis of neurons and astrocytes. We present here a cell-culture assay that allows for the long-term cocultivation of pure primary neurons and astrocytes, which share the same chemically defined medium, while being physically separated. In this setup, the cultures survive for up to four weeks and the assay is suitable for a diversity of investigations concerning neuron-glia interaction.

The Indirect Neuron-astrocyte Coculture Assay: An In Vitro Set-up for the Detailed Investigation of Neuron-glia Interactions

This protocol describes the indirect neuron-astrocyte coculture for compartmentalized analysis of neuron-glia interactions.

A indireta Neuron-astrócitos Coculture Ensaio: An<em&gt; In Vitro</em&gt; Set-up para a investigação detalhada da Relação Neuron-glia

Proper neuronal development and function is the prerequisite of the developing and the adult brain. However, the mechanisms underlying the highly ...

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. Drosophila larval neuronal dendritic arborization (da) is an ideal model for studying morphogenesis of neural dendrites and gene function in the development of nervous system. There are four classes of da neurons. Class IV is the most complex with a branching pattern that covers almost the entire area of the larval body wall. We have previously characterized the effect of silencing the Drosophila ortholog of SOX5 on class IV neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) using four parameters: the length of dendrites, the surface area of dendrite coverage, the total number of branches, and the branching structure. This protocol presents the workflow of NDAC quantitative analysis, consisting of larval dissection, confocal microscopy, and image analysis procedures using ImageJ software. Further insight into da neuronal development and its underlying mechanisms will improve the understanding of neuronal function and provide clues about the fundamental causes of neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

This protocol focuses on quantitative analysis of neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) in Drosophila, which can be used for studies of dendritic morphogenesis.

Análise quantitativa da arborização dendrítica Neuronal complexidade em Drosophila

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. ...

Visualizing and Analyzing Intracellular Transport of Organelles and Other Cargos in Astrocytes

Astrocytes are among the most abundant cell types in the adult brain, where they play key roles in a multiplicity of functions. As a central player in brain homeostasis, astrocytes supply neurons with vital metabolites and buffer extracellular water, ions, and glutamate. An integral component of the &#8220;tri-partite&#8221; synapse, astrocytes are also critical in the formation, pruning, maintenance, and modulation of synapses. To enable these highly interactive functions, astrocytes communicate among themselves and with other glial cells, neurons, the brain vasculature, and the extracellular environment through a multitude of specialized membrane proteins that include cell adhesion molecules, aquaporins, ion channels, neurotransmitter transporters, and gap junction molecules. To support this dynamic flux, astrocytes, like neurons, rely on tightly coordinated and efficient intracellular transport. Unlike neurons,&#160;where intracellular trafficking has been extensively delineated, microtubule-based transport in astrocytes has been less studied. Nonetheless, exo- and endocytic trafficking of cell membrane proteins and intracellular organelle transport orchestrates astrocytes&#8217; normal biology, and these processes are often affected in disease or in response to injury. Here we present a straightforward protocol to culture high quality murine astrocytes, to fluorescently label astrocytic proteins and organelles of interest, and to record their intracellular transport dynamics using time-lapse confocal microscopy. We also demonstrate how to extract and quantify relevant transport parameters from the acquired movies using available image analysis software (i.e., ImageJ/FIJI) plugins.

Here we describe an in vitro live-imaging method to visualize intracellular transport of organelles and trafficking of plasma membrane proteins in murine astrocytes. This protocol also presents an image analysis methodology to determine cargo transport itineraries and kinetics.

Visualizando e analisando o transporte intracelular de organelas e outras cargas em astrócitos

Astrocytes are among the most abundant cell types in the adult brain, where they play key roles in a multiplicity of functions. As a central player in ...

Analisando dendríticas Morfologia em Colunas e Camadas

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