This research was funded in parts by NIH grants HL66299 to TS, RB, and SL, HL60024 to TS, and HL136869 to MF.

All animal procedures were reviewed and approved by the Institutional and Animal Care Committee of the University of South Alabama and were performed in accordance with all federal, state, and local regulations. Primary cultures of rat pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs) were obtained from the Cell Culture Core Facility at the University of South Alabama&#8217;s Center for Lung Biology. Cells were prepared using previously described procedures16.
1. Generation of Cytotoxic Supernatants
Note: Here, we use two different strains of P. aeruginosa: PA103, which has an intact type III secretion system capable of transferring the exoenzymes ExoU and ExoT to target cells during infection, and &#8710;PcrV, which lacks a type III secretion system and is incapable of transferring exoenzymes to target cells following inoculation.
<ol>
	<li>Streak bacteria onto Vogel-Bonner (VB) agar plates17 and grow overnight at 37 &#176;C.
	<ol>
		<li>To prepare plates, make the following stock solution (Vogel-Bonner salts; 10x&#160;stock): measure 2 g MgSO4, 20 g citric acid (free acid), 100 g K2PO4, and 35 g NaH2PO4. Add ddH2O to 1 L and autoclave for 15 min with slow exhaust.</li>
		<li>Place 7.5 g agar in 450 mL ddH2O and autoclave as above.</li>
		<li>Following autoclaving, place both solutions into a 50 &#176;C water bath to cool.</li>
		<li>Add 50 mL of the 10x VB stock salt solution to the agar.</li>
		<li>Add carbenicillin to 400 &#181;g/mL (for the strains of P. aeruginosa being used) and mix well by swirling the flask.</li>
		<li>Place 5 mL of the VB agar solution into individual sterile culture dishes, allow the agar to solidify, and then store at 4 &#176;C until the day of bacterial seeding.</li>
		<li>On the day of bacterial seeding, pre-warm a plate to 37 &#176;C and then streak bacteria onto the plate using a sterile loop. Place the plate in a 37 &#176;C incubator overnight.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Verify PMVEC purity by positive staining with fluorescent Griffonia simplicifolia lectin and negative staining with fluorescent Helix pomatia lectin (a marker for arterial endothelial cells). Aliquot cells and freeze in liquid nitrogen.</li>
	<li>For experiments, maintain cells in Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle&#8217;s Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, and grow cells in a 37 &#176;C incubator containing 5% CO2. Use cells at passages 5 - 15.
	<ol>
		<li>For generation of cytotoxic supernatants, plate 2 x 106 cells into individual 150 cm dishes and grow for 3 - 4 days until confluence is achieved. Use two plates per experiment (see below).</li>
		<li>For analysis of cytotoxic supernatants, plate 1 x 105 cells into individual wells of a 6-well dish and grow for four days until confluence is achieved.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>To produce supernatant, wash one of the two 150 cm dishes of PMVECs from step 1.3.1 with phosphate-buffered saline, trypsinize, and then count the cells (we use an automated cell counter and follow the manufacturer&#8217;s protocol; see Table of Materials). Wash the other dish of PMVECs with Hank&#8217;s Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) and then infect with either strain of P. aeruginosa at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 20:1. This is achieved as follows:
	<ol>
		<li>For P. aeruginosa, OD540 0.25 = 2 x 108 CFUs/mL. To prepare this dilution, add 1 mL HBSS to a 1 mL disposable cuvette. Scrape enough bacteria off of the plate that was prepared in step 1.1 until an OD540 of 0.25 is achieved when measured using a spectrophotometer. The next step will provide a calculation of how much bacteria will be needed.</li>
		<li>Once the number of PMVECs in the culture dish is determined (step 1.4 above), determine the appropriate number of bacteria to be added to the second, non-trypsinized culture dish containing the PMVECs. For example, if it is determined that the culture dish of PMVECs contains 1.3 x 107 cells, then prepare 1.3 x 107 cells x 20 bacteria/cell x 1 mL/2 x 108 CFUs = 1.3 mL bacteria.</li>
		<li>Dilute the 1.3 mL of bacteria into HBSS to a final volume of 20 mL, so that the entire surface of a 150 cm dish can be covered with fluid, then add the diluted bacteria to the plate of PMVECs.</li>
		<li>Incubate the PMVECs inoculated with the bacteria at 37 &#176;C in a 5% CO2 incubator for 4 - 5 h, until gaps can be seen forming in the cell monolayer when the plate is observed microscopically (See Figure 1 for proper level of gap formation).</li>
		<li>Collect the supernatant, then centrifuge for 10 min at 2,000 x g in a tabletop centrifuge to remove cellular debris. 
		Note: Any table top centrifuge capable of generating sufficient g force to pellet unlysed cells and large cell fragments can be used for this step.</li>
		<li>Pour the supernatant into a syringe that has a 0.2 &#181;m filter attached to its end, then pass the supernatant through the filter to remove bacteria.</li>
		<li>Use an aliquot of the sterile supernatant to test cytotoxicity (see 2.1) and freeze the rest of the supernatant at -80 &#176;C for future use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Analysis of Cytotoxic Supernatants
<ol>
	<li>Cytotoxicity Assay
	<ol>
		<li>Grow PMVECs in 6-well dishes until confluence. Wash wells once with HBSS, then add 1.5 mL of filter-sterilized supernatant (collected from either PA103- or &#8710;PcrV-inoculated cells) to individual wells. Add sterile HBSS to another well as a negative control.</li>
		<li>Place the plate into the CO2 incubator for 21 - 24 h, then observe for cell killing/cytotoxicity (see next step). Use supernatants that exhibit cytotoxicity for further experimentation, and discard those that do not show cell killing.</li>
		<li>Quantitation of cell killing
		<ol>
			<li>Measure lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from dead cells using commercially available LDH Assay Kits and manufacturer&#8217;s recommended procedures.</li>
			<li>Alternatively, quantify cell killing microscopically using ImageJ software. For this, record microscopic images and areas of the culture dish containing intact cells, then quantify regions lacking cells (indicative of cell death in a monolayer) using a custom ImageJ (National Institutes of Health) macro (see Supplementary Coding File). If desired, carry out the macro steps manually as follows:
			<ol>
				<li>Input images (RGB or Tiff format) into the macro and adjust contrast to 15% saturated pixels. Duplicate contrast-adjusted images and perform the &#8220;subtract background&#8221; command to obtain a high-contrast image of both cell and gap area within the field of view.</li>
				<li>Subtract this image from the original image and combine the resulting image with the original image using the image calculator &#8220;AND&#8221; function. Convert the resultant image to black (gaps) and white (cells) mask with the threshold function (minimum 0, maximum 5), and use the &#8220;binary erode&#8221; function to remove noise from the image.</li>
				<li>Measure the ratio of black to white pixels within the resultant image using the &#8220;area fraction&#8221; measurement. Plot and express fractional areas for each treatment time point as percent of maximal gap area.</li>
				<li>Calculate means and compare using one-way ANOVA with Tukey&#8217;s post hoc test, with p values less than 0.05 considered significant.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Use immunoblot analysis to establish the presence of amyloid, oligomeric tau, and A&#946; in culture supernatants. Perform immunoblot analysis using standard procedures10,11,12, except for concentrating culture supernatants at least 10-fold prior to electrophoresis.
		<ol>
			<li>To concentrate supernatant, place 1 - 2 mL of supernatant into a centrifugation filter unit whose membrane has a molecular weight cut-off of 10 kDa. Then, place the filter unit into a table top centrifuge and centrifuge at 2,000 x g until the required degree of concentration is achieved (usually 45 - 60 min).</li>
			<li>Determine the amount of protein in the concentrated supernatant11 and load equal amounts of samples into individual wells of the gel.</li>
			<li>Run gels, transfer the proteins to nitrocellulose, then probe blots with either A11 anti-amyloid antibody, T22 anti-oligomeric tau antibody, or MOAB2 anti-A&#946; antibody followed by appropriate secondary antibodies. Develop the blots using standard chemiluminescence procedures.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>To do a thioflavin T Assay, use thioflavin T fluorescence (ThT) to quantify amyloids in supernatants. For these measurements, use filter-sterilized supernatants.
		<ol>
			<li>Prepare a stock solution (50x) of thioflavin T by suspending 8 mg thioflavin T (ThT) into 10 mL phosphate buffered saline (PBS). After mixing, filter the solution through a 0.22 &#181;m filter to remove particulates.</li>
			<li>For measurements, add 20 &#181;L of ThT stock to 1 mL of PBS in a 1 mL spectrophotometer cuvette. Place the diluted sample into a spectrofluorimeter.</li>
			<li>Measure the baseline fluorescence emission using 425 nm excitation and scanning the fluorescence emission from 450-575 nm in 2 nm increments.</li>
			<li>Perform a time-lapse scan using 425 nm excitation and 482 nm emission, with data acquired every 0.2 s for 60 s.</li>
			<li>The initial 20 s of the time-lapse scan measures fluorescence in the blank cuvette. At 20 s, pause the scan and add 10 &#181;L of the filter-sterilized supernatant to the cuvette. Mix the cuvette by inversion and then place back into the spectrofluorimeter.</li>
			<li>Resume the time-based scan, acquiring the final 40 s of data.</li>
			<li>Upon completion of the time-lapse scan, perform a final fluorescence emission spectrum scan using identical settings, as detailed in 2.1.5.3.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Association+between+hospitalization+for+pneumonia+and+subsequent+risk+of+cardiovascular+disease.">Association between hospitalization for pneumonia and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease.</a> J Am Med Assoc. 313 (3), 264-274 (2015).</li><li>Frank, D. 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D., Alexeyev, M., Pastukh, V., Balczon, R., Stevens, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+exotoxin+Y+is+a+promiscuous+cyclase+that+increases+endothelial+tau+phosphorylation+and+permeability.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin Y is a promiscuous cyclase that increases endothelial tau phosphorylation and permeability.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 287 (30), 25407-25418 (2012).</li><li>Balczon, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+exotoxin+Y-mediated+tau+hyperphosphorylation+impairs+microtubule+assembly+in+pulmonary+microvascular+endothelial+cells.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin Y-mediated tau hyperphosphorylation impairs microtubule assembly in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells.</a> PLoS One. 8, e74343 (2013).</li><li>Morrow, K. 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C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+exoenzyme+Y+impairs+endothelial+cell+proliferation+and+vascular+repair+following+lung+injury.">The Pseudomonas aeruginosa exoenzyme Y impairs endothelial cell proliferation and vascular repair following lung injury.</a> Am J Physiol Lung Cell Molec Physiol. 306 (10), L915-L924 (2014).</li><li>Prusiner, S. 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None to report.

Here, simple in vitro methods are outlined which allow demonstration of the generation of cytotoxic amyloids during infection with a pneumonia causing organism. These methods include a cell culture cytotoxicity assay, immunoblotting, quantitation of cell killing using a novel microscopic method, and ThT binding. Analyses of the cytotoxic agents have demonstrated that they are amyloid in nature (Figure 2 and Figure 4) and exhibit charact...

Patients who survive pneumonia have elevated death rates in the months following hospital discharge1,2,3,4,5,6. In most cases, death occurs by some type of end-organ failure including renal, pulmonary, cardiac, or liver events, as well as stroke5,6. The reason for the elevated death rate in this patient population has never been established.
Pneumonia is classified as being either community-acquired or hospital-acquired (nosocomial), and agents that can cause pneumonia include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and chemicals. One of the major causes of nosocomial pneumonia is the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. P. aeruginosa is a gram-negative organism that uses a type III secretion system to transfer various effector molecules, termed exoenzymes, directly to the cytoplasm of target cells7,8. During infection of pulmonary endothelial cells, the exoenzymes target various intracellular proteins, including an endothelial form of the microtubule-associated protein tau9,10,11,12, leading to endothelial barrier breakdown resulting in severe pulmonary edema, decreased pulmonary function and, oftentimes, death.
As stated previously, patients who survive the initial pneumonia have elevated death rates in the first 12 months following hospital discharge. A potential mechanism for explaining this phenomenon is that some type of long-lived toxin is generated during the initial infection that leads to poor long-term outcome. Two observations support this possibility. First, cultured pulmonary endothelial cells that are treated initially with P. aeruginosa fail to proliferate for up to a week after the bacteria are killed by antibiotics13. Second, long-lived prions and agents with prion characteristics have been demonstrated in various human and animal diseases, particularly diseases associated with the nervous system14,15.
Methods for examining the potential production of long-lived cytotoxic agents during pulmonary infection have never been described. Here a series of simple in vitro assays are outlined that can be used for investigating cytotoxin production and activity following infection using a common pneumonia causing agent, P. aeruginosa. These assays should be readily adaptable to investigate possible cytotoxin induction following infection using other agents that cause pneumonia, and the supernatants that are generated also should be useful for investigating effects of the cytotoxins in whole organs or animals. Finally, the assays that are outlined here most likely will be adaptable to test animal and human biological fluids for the production of cytotoxins during pneumonia.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Rabbit anti beta amyloid</td><td>Thermo</td><td>71-5800</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>A11 amyloid oligomer antibody</td><td>StressMarq</td><td>SPC-506D</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>T22 anti-tau oligomer antibody</td><td>EMD Millipore</td><td>ABN454</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Thioflavin T</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>T3516</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HBSS</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14025-092</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBS</td><td>Gibco</td><td>10010-023</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>0.22 micron syringe filters</td><td>Millipore</td><td>SLGP033RS</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMEM</td><td>Gibco</td><td>11965-092</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HRP Goat antirabbit IgG</td><td>Abcam</td><td>ab6721-1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Strains PA103 and &amp;Delta;PcrV</td><td></td><td></td><td>These strains of P. aeruginosa were obtained from Dr. Dara Frank, University of Wisconsin Medical College, Milwaukee, WI</td></tr><tr><td>FITC Griffonia lectin</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>L9381</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TRITC Helix pomatia lectin</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>L1261</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Agar</td><td>Fisher</td><td>BP1423-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>0.22 micron nitrocellulose</td><td>BioRad</td><td>162-0112</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Type 2 collagenase</td><td>Worthington</td><td>LS004176</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal bovine serum</td><td>Hyclone</td><td>SH30898.03IH</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PenStrep</td><td>Gibco</td><td>15070063</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Carbenicillin Disodium salt</td><td>Sigma&amp;nbsp;</td><td>C1389</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microcetrifugation concentrators- 10,000 MW cut-off</td><td>Millipore</td><td>UFC801008</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potassium phosphate dibasic</td><td>Sigma&amp;nbsp;</td><td>795496-500G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Magnesium phosphate heptahydrate</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>MP021914221</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Citric Acid</td><td>G Biosciences</td><td>50-103-5801</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium phosphate dibasic heptahydrate</td><td>Sigma</td><td>S9506-500G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Countess Automated Cell Counter</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>C10277</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

methods for detecting cytotoxic amyloids following infection of pulmonary endothelial cells by pseudomonas aeruginosa

Patients who survive pneumonia have elevated death rates in the months following hospital discharge. It has been hypothesized that infection of pulmonary tissue during pneumonia results in the production of long-lived cytotoxins that can lead to subsequent end organ failure. We have developed in vitro assays to test the hypothesis that cytotoxins are produced during pulmonary infection. Isolated rat pulmonary endothelial cells and the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa are used as model systems, and the production of cytoxins following infection of the endothelial cells by the bacteria is demonstrated using cell culture followed by direct quantitation using lactate dehydrogenase assays and a novel microscopic method utilizing ImageJ technology. The amyloid nature of these cytotoxins was demonstrated by thioflavin T binding assays and by immunoblotting and immunodepletion using A11 anti-amyloid antibody. Further analyses using immunoblotting demonstrated that oligomeric tau and A&#946; were produced and released by endothelial cells following infection by P. aeruginosa. These methods should be readily adaptable to analyses of human clinical samples.

A simple in vitro assay has been developed to assay for the presence of cytotoxins in supernatants of cells infected with the bacterium P. aeruginosa. Basically, culture medium from infected cells is collected 4 h after bacterial addition, the bacteria are removed by filter sterilization of the culture supernatant, and then the sterile supernatant is added to a new population of cells. The cells are then observed 21 - 24 h after the addition of supernatant and cell killi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa at JoVE.com

Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Simple methods are described for demonstrating the production of cytotoxic amyloids following infection of pulmonary endothelium by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Patients who survive pneumonia have elevated death rates in the months following hospital discharge. It has been hypothesized that infection of pulmonary ...

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Immunology and Infection

5.5K Views.  University of South Alabama. Simple methods are described for demonstrating the production of cytotoxic amyloids following infection of pulmonary endothelium by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Video: Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Single Cell Measurements of Vacuolar Rupture Caused by Intracellular Pathogens

Shigella flexneri are pathogenic bacteria that invade host cells entering into an endocytic vacuole. Subsequently, the rupture of this membrane-enclosed compartment allows bacteria to move within the cytosol, proliferate and further invade neighboring cells. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is phagocytosed by immune cells, and has recently been shown to rupture phagosomal membrane in macrophages. We developed a robust assay for tracking phagosomal membrane disruption after host cell entry of Shigella flexneri or Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The approach makes use of CCF4, a FRET reporter sensitive to &beta;-lactamase that equilibrates in the cytosol of host cells. Upon invasion of host cells by bacterial pathogens, the probe remains intact as long as the bacteria reside in membrane-enclosed compartments. After disruption of the vacuole, &beta;-lactamase activity on the surface of the intracellular pathogen cleaves CCF4 instantly leading to a loss of FRET signal and switching its emission spectrum. This robust ratiometric assay yields accurate information about the timing of vacuolar rupture induced by the invading bacteria, and it can be coupled to automated microscopy and image processing by specialized algorithms for the detection of the emission signals of the FRET donor and acceptor. Further, it allows investigating the dynamics of vacuolar disruption elicited by intracellular bacteria in real time in single cells. Finally, it is perfectly suited for high-throughput analysis with a spatio-temporal resolution exceeding previous methods. Here, we provide the experimental details of exemplary protocols for the CCF4 vacuolar rupture assay on HeLa cells and THP-1 macrophages for time-lapse experiments or end points experiments using Shigella flexneri as well as multiple mycobacterial strains such as Mycobacterium marinum, Mycobacterium bovis, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

We describe a method for tracking the endomembrane rupture elicited by the intracellular bacteria Shigella flexneri and Mycobacterium tuberculosis upon host cell invasion. Our assay makes use of CCF4, a host cytoplasmic FRET probe in live or fixed cells. This reporter is degraded by an enzyme activity present on the bacterial surface.

Shigella flexneri are pathogenic bacteria that invade host cells entering into an endocytic vacuole. Subsequently, the rupture of this membrane-enclosed ...

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Induced Lung Injury Model

In order to study human acute lung injury and pneumonia, it is important to develop animal models to mimic various pathological features of this disease. Here we have developed a mouse lung injury model by intra-tracheal injection of bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa or PA). Using this model, we were able to show lung inflammation at the early phase of injury. In addition, alveolar epithelial barrier leakiness was observed by analyzing bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL); and alveolar cell death was observed by Tunel assay using tissue prepared from injured lungs. At a later phase following injury, we observed cell proliferation required for the repair process. The injury was resolved 7 days from the initiation of P. aeruginosa injection. This model mimics the sequential course of lung inflammation, injury and repair during pneumonia. This clinically relevant animal model is suitable for studying pathology, mechanism of repair, following acute lung injury, and also can be used to test potential therapeutic agents for this disease.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Induced Lung Injury Model

We have developed a mouse lung injury model by intra-tracheal injection of bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This model mimics lung injury during pneumonia and is clinically relevant.

In order to study human acute lung injury and pneumonia, it is important to develop animal models to mimic various pathological features of this disease. ...

A Rapid Image-based Bacterial Virulence Assay Using Amoeba

Traditional bacterial virulence assays involve prolonged exposure of bacteria over the course of several hours to host cells. During this time, bacteria can undergo changes in the physiology due to the exposure to host growth environment and the presence of the host cells. We developed an assay to rapidly measure the virulence state of bacteria that minimize the extent to which bacteria grow in the presence of host cells. Bacteria and amoebae are mixed together and immobilized on a single imaging plane using an agar pad. The procedure uses single-cell fluorescence imaging with calcein-acetoxymethyl ester (calcein-AM) as an indicator of host cell health. The fluorescence of host cells is analyzed after 1 h of exposure of host cells to bacteria using epifluorescence microscopy. Image analysis software is used to compute a host killing index. This method has been used to measure virulence within planktonic and surface-attached Pseudomonas aeruginosa sub-populations during the initial stage of biofilm formation and may be adapted to other bacteria and other stages of biofilm growth. This protocol provides a rapid and robust method of measuring virulence and avoids many of the complexities associated with the growth and maintenance of mammalian cell lines. Virulence phenotypes measured here using amoebae have also been validated using mouse macrophages. In particular, this assay was used to establish that surface attachment upregulates virulence in P. aeruginosa.

Here, we present a protocol to measure the virulence of planktonic or surface-attached bacteria using D. discoideum (amoeba) as a host. Virulence is measured over a period of 1 h and host killing is quantified using fluorescence microscopy and image analysis. We demonstrate this protocol using the bacterium P. aeruginosa.

Traditional bacterial virulence assays involve prolonged exposure of bacteria over the course of several hours to host cells. During this time, bacteria ...

Bioengineering

Pneumococcus Infection of Primary Human Endothelial Cells in Constant Flow

Interaction of Streptococcus pneumoniae with the surface of endothelial cells is mediated in blood flow via mechanosensitive proteins such as the Von Willebrand Factor (VWF). This glycoprotein changes its molecular conformation in response to shear stress, thereby exposing binding sites for a broad spectrum of host-ligand interactions. In general, culturing of primary endothelial cells under a defined shear flow is known to promote the specific cellular differentiation and the formation of a stable and tightly linked endothelial layer resembling the physiology of the inner lining of a blood vessel. Thus, the functional analysis of interactions between bacterial pathogens and the host vasculature involving mechanosensitive proteins requires the establishment of pump systems that can simulate the physiological flow forces known to affect the surface of vascular cells.
The microfluidic device used in this study enables a continuous and pulseless recirculation of fluids with a defined flow rate. The computer-controlled air-pressure pump system applies a defined shear stress on endothelial cell surfaces by generating a continuous, unidirectional, and controlled medium flow. Morphological changes of the cells and bacterial attachment can be microscopically monitored and quantified in the flow by using special channel slides that are designed for microscopic visualization. In contrast to static cell culture infection, which in general requires a sample fixation prior to immune labeling and microscopic analyses, the microfluidic slides enable both the fluorescence-based detection of proteins, bacteria, and cellular components after sample fixation; serial immunofluorescence staining; and direct fluorescence-based detection in real time. In combination with fluorescent bacteria and specific fluorescence-labeled antibodies, this infection procedure provides an efficient multiple component visualization system for a huge spectrum of scientific applications related to vascular processes.

This study describes the microscopic monitoring of pneumococcus adherence to von Willebrand factor strings produced on the surface of differentiated human primary endothelial cells under shear stress in defined flow conditions. This protocol can be extended to detailed visualization of specific cell structures and quantification of bacteria by applying differential immunostaining procedures.

Interaction of Streptococcus pneumoniae with the surface of endothelial cells is mediated in blood flow via mechanosensitive proteins such as the Von ...

Culture of Small Colony Variant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Quantitation of its Alginate

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an opportunistic Gram-negative bacterial pathogen, can overproduce an exopolysaccharide alginate resulting in a unique phenotype called mucoidy. Alginate is linked to chronic lung infections resulting in poor prognosis in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Understanding the pathways that regulate the production of alginate can aid in the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting the alginate formation. Another disease-related phenotype is the small colony variant (SCV). SCV is due to the slow growth of bacteria and often associated with increased resistance to antimicrobials. In this paper, we first show a method of culturing a genetically defined form of P. aeruginosa SCV due to pyrimidine biosynthesis mutations. Supplementation of nitrogenous bases, uracil or cytosine, returns the normal growth to these mutants, demonstrating the presence of a salvage pathway that scavenges free bases from the environment. Next, we discuss two methods for the measurement of bacterial alginate. The first method relies on the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide to its uronic acid monomer followed by derivatization with a chromogenic reagent, carbazole, while the second method uses an ELISA based on a commercially available, alginate-specific mAb. Both methods require a standard curve for quantitation. We also show that the immunological method is specific for alginate quantification and may be used for the measurement of alginate in the clinical specimens.

Culture of Small Colony Variant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Quantitation of its Alginate

Here, we describe a growth condition to culture the small colony variant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We also describe two separate methods for the detection and quantitation of the exopolysaccharide alginate produced by P. aeruginosa using a traditional uronic acid carbazole assay and an alginate-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) based ELISA.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an opportunistic Gram-negative bacterial pathogen, can overproduce an exopolysaccharide alginate resulting in a unique phenotype ...

P. aeruginosa Infected 3D Co-Culture of Bronchial Epithelial Cells and Macrophages at Air-Liquid Interface for Preclinical Evaluation of Anti-Infectives

fDrug research for the treatment of lung infections is progressing towards predictive in vitro models of high complexity. The multifaceted presence of bacteria in lung models can re-adapt epithelial arrangement, while immune cells coordinate an inflammatory response against the bacteria in the microenvironment. While in vivo models have been the choice for testing new anti-infectives in the context of cystic fibrosis, they still do not accurately mimic the in vivo conditions of such diseases in humans and the treatment outcomes. Complex in vitro models of the infected airways based on human cells (bronchial epithelial and macrophages) and relevant pathogens could bridge this gap and facilitate the translation of new anti-infectives into the clinic. For such purposes, a co-culture model of the human cystic fibrosis bronchial epithelial cell line CFBE41o- and THP-1 monocyte-derived macrophages has been established, mimicking an infection of the human bronchial mucosa by P. aeruginosa at air-liquid interface (ALI) conditions. This model is set up in seven days, and the following parameters are simultaneously assessed: epithelial barrier integrity, macrophage transmigration, bacterial survival, and inflammation. The present protocol describes a robust and reproducible system for evaluating drug efficacy and host responses that could be relevant for discovering new anti-infectives and optimizing their aerosol delivery to the lungs.

P. aeruginosa Infected 3D Co-Culture of Bronchial Epithelial Cells and Macrophages at Air-Liquid Interface for Preclinical Evaluation of Anti-Infectives

We describe a protocol for a three-dimensional co-culture model of infected airways, using CFBE41o- cells, THP-1 macrophages, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, established at the air-liquid interface. This model provides a new platform to simultaneously test antibiotic efficacy, epithelial barrier function, and inflammatory markers.

fDrug research for the treatment of lung infections is progressing towards predictive in vitro models of high complexity. The multifaceted presence of ...

Studying Effects of Cigarette Smoke on Pseudomonas Infection in Lung Epithelial Cells

Cigarette smoking is the major etiological cause for lung emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Cigarette smoking also promotes susceptibility to bacterial infections in the respiratory system. However, the effects of cigarette smoking on bacterial infections in human lung epithelial cells have yet to be thoroughly studied. Described here is a detailed protocol for the preparation of cigarette smoking extracts (CSE), treatment of human lung epithelial cells with CSE, and bacterial infection and infection determination. CSE was prepared with a conventional method. Lung epithelial cells were treated with 4% CSE for 3 h. CSE-treated cells were, then, infected with Pseudomonas at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10. Bacterial loads of the cells were determined by three different methods. The results showed that CSE increased Pseudomonas load in lung epithelial cells. This protocol, therefore, provides a simple and reproducible approach to study the effect of cigarette smoke on bacterial infections in lung epithelial cells.

Studying Effects of Cigarette Smoke on Pseudomonas Infection in Lung Epithelial Cells

Described here is a protocol to study how cigarette smoke extract affects bacterial colonization in lung epithelial cells.

Cigarette smoking is the major etiological cause for lung emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Cigarette smoking also promotes ...

Visualization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa within the Sputum of Cystic Fibrosis Patients

Early detection and eradication of Pseudomonas aeruginosa within the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients can reduce the chance of developing chronic infection. The development of chronic P. aeruginosa infections is associated with a decline in lung function and increased morbidity. Therefore, there is a great interest in elucidating the reasons for the failure to eradicate P. aeruginosa with antibiotic therapy which occurs in approximately 10-40% of pediatric patients. One of many factors that can affect host clearance of P. aeruginosa and antibiotic susceptibility is variations in spatial organization (such as aggregation or biofilm formation) and polysaccharide production. Therefore, we were interested in visualizing the in situ characteristics of P. aeruginosa within the sputum of CF patients. A tissue clearing technique was applied to sputum samples after embedding the samples into a hydrogel matrix to retain the 3D structures relative to host cells. After tissue clearing, fluorescent labels and dyes were added to allow visualization. Fluorescence in situ hybridization was performed for the visualization of bacterial cells, binding of fluorescently labeled anti-Psl-antibodies for the visualization of the exopolysaccharide and DAPI staining to stain host cells to obtain structural insight. These methods allowed for the high-resolution imaging of P. aeruginosa within the sputum of CF patients via confocal laser scanning microscopy.

Visualization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa within the Sputum of Cystic Fibrosis Patients

This protocol provides methods for visualization of bacterial cells and polysaccharide synthesis locus (Psl) polysaccharide within the sputum of cystic fibrosis patients.

Early detection and eradication of Pseudomonas aeruginosa within the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients can reduce the chance of developing chronic ...

Antibiotic Efficacy Testing in an Ex vivo Model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms in the Cystic Fibrosis Lung

The effective prescription of antibiotics for the bacterial biofilms present within the lungs of individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF) is limited by a poor correlation between antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) results using standard diagnostic methods (e.g., broth microdilution, disk diffusion, or Etest) and clinical outcomes after antibiotic treatment. Attempts to improve AST by the use of off-the-shelf biofilm growth platforms show little improvement in results. The limited ability of in vitro biofilm systems to mimic the physicochemical environment of the CF lung and, therefore bacterial physiology and biofilm architecture, also acts as a brake on the discovery of novel therapies for CF infection. Here, we present a protocol to perform AST of CF pathogens grown as mature, in vivo-like biofilms in an ex vivo CF lung model comprised of pig bronchiolar tissue and synthetic CF sputum (ex vivo&#160;pig lung, EVPL).
Several in vitro&#160;assays exist for biofilm susceptibility testing, using either standard laboratory medium or various formulations of synthetic CF sputum in microtiter plates. Both growth medium and biofilm substrate (polystyrene plate vs. bronchiolar tissue) are likely to affect biofilm antibiotic tolerance. We show enhanced tolerance of clinical Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus isolates in the ex vivo model; the effects of antibiotic treatment of biofilms is not correlated with the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) in standard microdilution assays or a sensitive/resistant classification in disk diffusion assays.
The ex vivo platform could be used for bespoke biofilm AST of patient samples and as an enhanced testing platform for potential antibiofilm agents during pharmaceutical research and development. Improving the prescription or acceleration of antibiofilm drug discovery through the use of more in vivo-like testing platforms could drastically improve health outcomes for individuals with CF, as well as reduce the costs of clinical treatment and discovery research.

Antibiotic Efficacy Testing in an Ex vivo Model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms in the Cystic Fibrosis Lung

This workflow can be used to perform antibiotic susceptibility testing using an established&#160;ex vivo model of bacterial biofilm in the lungs of individuals with cystic fibrosis. Use of this model could enhance the clinical validity of MBEC (minimal biofilm eradication concentration) assays.

The effective prescription of antibiotics for the bacterial biofilms present within the lungs of individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF) is limited by a ...

Automated, High-Throughput Detection of Bacterial Adherence to Host Cells

Identification of emerging bacterial pathogens is critical for human health and security. Bacterial adherence to host cells is an essential step in bacterial infections and constitutes a hallmark of potential threat. Therefore, examining the adherence of bacteria to host cells can be used as a component of bacterial threat assessment. A standard method for enumerating bacterial adherence to host cells is to co-incubate bacteria with host cells, harvest the adherent bacteria, plate the harvested cells on solid media, and then count the resultant colony forming units (CFU). Alternatively, bacterial adherence to host cells can be evaluated using immunofluorescence microscopy-based approaches. However, conventional strategies for implementing these approaches are time-consuming and inefficient. Here, a recently developed automated fluorescence microscopy-based imaging method is described. When combined with high-throughput image processing and statistical analysis, the method enables rapid quantification of bacteria that adhere to host cells. Two bacterial species, Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Gram-positive Listeria monocytogenes and corresponding negative controls, were tested to demonstrate the protocol. The results show that this approach rapidly and accurately enumerates adherent bacteria and significantly reduces experimental workloads and timelines.

Detection of host-bacterial pathogen interactions based on phenotypic adherence using high-throughput fluorescence labeling imaging along with automated statistical analysis methods enables rapid evaluation of potential bacterial interactions with host cells.

Identification of emerging bacterial pathogens is critical for human health and security. Bacterial adherence to host cells is an essential step in ...

Methods for Detecting Cytotoxic Amyloids Following Infection of Pulmonary Endothelial Cells by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

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Single Cell Measurements of Vacuolar Rupture Caused by Intracellular Pathogens

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Induced Lung Injury Model

A Rapid Image-based Bacterial Virulence Assay Using Amoeba

Pneumococcus Infection of Primary Human Endothelial Cells in Constant Flow

Culture of Small Colony Variant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Quantitation of its Alginate

P. aeruginosa Infected 3D Co-Culture of Bronchial Epithelial Cells and Macrophages at Air-Liquid Interface for Preclinical Evaluation of Anti-Infectives

Studying Effects of Cigarette Smoke on Pseudomonas Infection in Lung Epithelial Cells

Visualization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa within the Sputum of Cystic Fibrosis Patients

Antibiotic Efficacy Testing in an Ex vivo Model of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms in the Cystic Fibrosis Lung

Automated, High-Throughput Detection of Bacterial Adherence to Host Cells