The authors would like to thank: Dr. Frank Jiang, Dr. David Lin, Dr. Bernard Yurke and Dr. Uday Chippada for their contributions on developing the DNA gel technology; Dr. Norell Hadzimichalis, Smit Shah, Kimberly Peterman, Robert Arter for their comments and edits of this manuscript; funding sources including the New Jersey Commission on Spinal Cord Research (Grant #07A-019-SCR1, N.A.L.) and New Jersey Neuroscience Institute (M.L.P.); and publishers of Tissue Engineering, Part A for permission to reprint Figures 2 and 4 and Biomaterials for permission to reprint Figure 3.

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The ability of DNA gels to soften or stiffen before and after cell adhesion makes them an ideal model to study the role of dynamic tissue stiffness on cell function. All three designs have been used in mechanical and biological studies. However, all three designs have similar elasticities at various crosslink percentages, indicating crosslink length does not influence DNA gel elasticity (Table 2). In contrast, acrylamide concentration affects elasticity. These designs may differ in crosslinking kinetics ...

Static and dynamic substrates are two categories of biomaterials that were developed to study the effects of tissue elasticity or stiffness on cell function. Static substrates are unable to change their physical properties after they are fabricated and/or once cells are plated. Polyacrylamide (PA) gels were the first two-dimensional, static substrates that were synthesized for mechanobiology investigations 5,17. PA gels are easy to prepare, inexpensive, versatile, and can be fabricated with a broad range of elastic moduli. Although these technical advantages make PA gels a commonly applied substrate, static substrates are not indicative of the dynamic nature of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and surrounding cellular environment in vivo. For example, the ECM undergoes stiffness alterations as a result of injury, development, or disease. Dynamic substrates are therefore favored as tissue-mimicking substrate models in mechanobiology studies 22,24,25.
Numerous synthetic, natural, two-dimensional, three-dimensional, static, and dynamic biomaterials have been developed to mimic tissue stiffness 1,3,6,16,23,26. Some dynamic substrates require heat, UV, electrical current, ions, and pH changes to alter their mechanical properties 2,4,7,8,12,15,16, but these stimuli can restrict the hydrogel&#8217;s bio-application. DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogels (DNA gels) are dynamic two-dimensional elastic substrates. DNA crosslinks allow for temporal, spatial, and reversible modulation of DNA gel stiffness by addition of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) to media or buffer 9-11,13,14,18,21. Unlike the aforementioned dynamic gels where stimuli are applied for modulation of elasticity, the DNA gels rely on the diffusion of applied ssDNA for the alteration of elasticity. Therefore, the upper gel surface, where cells are grown, is the first area modulated because the rate of elasticity modulation is dependent on the gel thickness.
DNA gels are similar to their PA gel counterparts in that they have a polyacrylamide backbone, however the bis-acrylamide crosslinks are replaced with crosslinks composed of DNA (Figure 1). Two ssDNAs (SA1 and SA2) hybridize with a crosslinker strand (L2) to make up the DNA crosslinks of the gel. SA1 and SA2 have distinct sequences that both contain an Acrydite modification at the 5&#180; end for effective incorporation into the PA network. For preparation of the gels, SA1 and SA2 are individually polymerized into a PA backbone and, subsequently, the polymerized SA1 and SA2 are mixed together. L2, the crosslinker, is added to the SA1 and SA2 mixture. The L2 base sequence is complementary to both SA1 and SA2 sequences and L2 hybridizes with SA1 plus SA2 to form the DNA crosslinks. Initial, DNA gel elasticity is determined by both L2 concentrations and crosslinking (Tables 1 and 2). DNA gels containing equal stoichiometric amounts of L2, SA1, and SA2 are the stiffest gels because SA1 and SA2 are 100% crosslinked by L2 (designated as 100% gels). Lower concentrations of L2 result in a lower percentage of DNA crosslinking and, therefore, softer DNA gels. Gels as low as 50% crosslinked (designated as 50% gels) have been constructed 9-11.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/51323/51323fig1highres.jpg" /> 
Figure 1.&#160;DNA gel crosslinking and uncrosslinking schematic 9-11,13,14,18,21.&#160; Step 1: SA1 (red) and SA2 (blue) are individually polymerized into a polyacrylamide backbone (black). After polymerization, SA1 and SA2 polymerized solutions are mixed together. Step 2: L2 (green) is added and hybridizes with SA1 plus SA2 to form the crosslinks of the gel. Step 3: R2 hybridizes with the toehold of L2. Step 4: Toehold hybridization of R2 propels the unzipping of L2 from SA1 and SA2.
Unlike PA gels, DNA gels can stiffen and soften after synthesis. For that reason, cells grown on DNA gels can be subjected to dynamic stiffness alterations. To stiffen cell-adherent gels, L2 can be added to the culture media of low percentage gels to increase the percentage of crosslinks. To soften cell-adherent gels, L2 can be removed to decrease the percentage of crosslinks 10,13,21. L2 has an additional toehold sequence at the 3&#180; end to allow L2 to uncrosslink from SA1 and SA2 (Table 1). Removal of L2 is accomplished by hybridization of a reversal strand called R2. R2 is complementary to the full length of L2 and hybridizes first with the L2 toehold. Toehold hybridization propels the unzipping of L2 from SA1 and SA2, which eliminates the crosslink and reduces the gel stiffness.
In this report and video, step-by-step instructions are provided for the preparation of stiffening and softening DNA gels. While 100% and 80% gel preparations are described, this protocol can be tailored to create DNA gels of other initial and final crosslinked percentages. In general, 100% and 80% gels are prepared, immobilized onto glass cover slips, functionalized, and seeded with cells. L2 is added to the media of 80% gels and R2 is added to the media of 100% gels, 48 hr after plating. The addition of L2 to media stiffens 80% gels to 100% crosslinked, whereas the addition of R2 to media softens 100% gels to 80% crosslinked. Stiffened gels are designated as 80&#8594;100% gels and softened gels are designated as 100&#8594;80% gels in the text. For control or static gels, ssDNA consisting of Ts or As is delivered to another set of 100% and 80% gels. After a minimum of two days following elasticity modulation, cells can be processed and analyzed.
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" fo:keep-together.within-page="always">
	<tbody align="center">
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td rowspan="2">DNA crosslink</td>
			<td rowspan="2"># of bases</td>
			<td>Sequence (Toehold)</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Modification</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Melting temperature (Tm, &#176;C)</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5&#39;&#8594;3&#39;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="4">Design 1</td>
			<td>SA1</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>GCA CCT TTG C</td>
			<td>5&#39; Acrydite</td>
			<td>34.9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SA2</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>GTC AGA ATG A</td>
			<td>5&#39; Acrydite</td>
			<td>23.6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L2</td>
			<td>30</td>
			<td>TCA TTC TGA CGC AAA GGT GCG CTA CAC TTG</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>56</td>
			<td>A 10 bp toehold sequence is included.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>R2</td>
			<td>30</td>
			<td>CAA GTG TAG CGC ACC TTT GCG TCA GAA TGA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>R2 is complementary to L2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="4">Design 2</td>
			<td>SA1</td>
			<td>14</td>
			<td>CGT GGC ATA GGA CT</td>
			<td>5&#39; Acrydite</td>
			<td>46.9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SA2</td>
			<td>14</td>
			<td>GTT TCC CAA TCA GA</td>
			<td>5&#39; Acrydite</td>
			<td>40.2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L2</td>
			<td>40</td>
			<td>TCT GAT TGG GAA ACA GTC CTA TGC CAC GGT TAC CTT CAT C</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>65.9</td>
			<td>A 12 bp sequence toehold is included.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>R2</td>
			<td>40</td>
			<td>GAT GAA GGT AAC CGT GGC ATA GGA CTG TTT CCC AAT CAG A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>65.9</td>
			<td>R2 is complementary to L2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="3">Design 3</td>
			<td>SA1</td>
			<td>20</td>
			<td>ACG GAG GTG TAT GCA ATG TC</td>
			<td>5&#39; Acrydite</td>
			<td>55</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SA2</td>
			<td>20</td>
			<td>CAT GCT TAG GGA CGA CTG GA</td>
			<td>5&#39; Acrydite</td>
			<td>56.6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L2</td>
			<td>40</td>
			<td>TCC AGT CGT CCC TAA GCA TGG ACA TTG CAT ACA CCT CCG T</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>68.8</td>
			<td>Toehold is not included.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">Control</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Control</td>
			<td rowspan="2">20-40</td>
			<td>AAA AAA (etc.) or</td>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TTT TTT (etc.)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1.&#160;Base sequences for ssDNA 9-11,13,14,18,21. Cellular and mechanical studies have utilized several different crosslink designs to generate DNA gels with a range of static and dynamic mechanical properties. The parameters modulated in crosslink design are base sequence and sequence length or crosslink length. Bold and italicized fonts illustrate base pairing between SA1 and L2 and between SA2 and L2, respectively.
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" fo:keep-together.within-page="always">
	<tbody align="center">
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td colspan="8">Design</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">1</td>
			<td colspan="3">2</td>
			<td colspan="2">3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylamide Concentration (%)</td>
			<td colspan="3">10</td>
			<td colspan="3">10</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SA1 plus SA2 hybridized to L2 (% crosslinked)</td>
			<td>50</td>
			<td>80</td>
			<td>100</td>
			<td>50</td>
			<td>80</td>
			<td>100</td>
			<td>100</td>
			<td>100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Elasticity (kPa, Mean&#177;SEM)</td>
			<td>6.6 &#177; 0.6</td>
			<td>17.1 &#177; 0.8</td>
			<td>29.8 &#177; 2.5</td>
			<td>5.85&#177; 0.62</td>
			<td>12.67 &#177; 1.33</td>
			<td>22.88 &#177; 2.77</td>
			<td>25.2 &#177; 0.5</td>
			<td>10.4 &#177; 0.6</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2.&#160;Young&#8217;s modulus (E) of DNA gels 9-11,13,14,18,21. Acrylamide concentration, crosslink percentage, and crosslink length can be modulated in DNA gels. Designs 1, 2, and 3 have 20, 28, and 40 bp crosslink lengths, respectively. 100% gels for all designs have similar moduli indicating crosslink length does not affect gel elasticity. However, variations in acrylamide concentration alter DNA gel elasticity.

<table><tbody><tr><td>ssDNA</td><td>Integrated DNA Technologies (Coralville, Iowa)&lt;br/&gt;idtdna.com</td><td></td><td>Do not vortex ssDNA. Gentle invert the vial and/or pipette solution to mix.</td></tr><tr><td>PBS with calcium and magnesium</td><td></td><td></td><td>Any brand.</td></tr><tr><td>100x Tris-EDTA buffer (TE buffer)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich (St. Loius, MO)&lt;br/&gt;sigmaldrich.com</td><td>T9285</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10x Tris-Borate-EDTA buffer (TBE buffer)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich (St. Loius, MO)</td><td>93290</td><td>TBE is a reproductive toxin.</td></tr><tr><td>40% Acrylamide solution</td><td>Fisher Scientific (Pittsburg, PA)</td><td>BP14021</td><td>Acrylamide is a toxin.</td></tr><tr><td>Ammonium persulfate (APS)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich (St. Loius, MO)</td><td>A3678</td><td>Prepare a 2% solution in TE buffer. APS is a toxin and irratant.</td></tr><tr><td>Tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich (St. Loius, MO)</td><td>T9281</td><td>Prepare a 20% solution in TE buffer. TEMED is flammable, a corrosive, and a toxin.</td></tr><tr><td>12 mm diameter round coverglass</td><td>Fisher Scientific (Pittsburg, PA)&lt;br/&gt;fishersci.com</td><td>12-545-82</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Norland optical adhesive 72</td><td>Norland Products (Cranbury, NJ)&lt;br/&gt;norlandprod.com</td><td>NOA72</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>24-well tissue culture plate</td><td></td><td></td><td>Any brand.</td></tr><tr><td>Microcentrifuge tubes</td><td></td><td></td><td>Any brand.</td></tr><tr><td>Sulfo-SANPAH</td><td>ProteoChem or Thermo Fisher, (Rockland, IL)&lt;br/&gt;proteochem.com or thermofisher.com</td><td>C111 or 22589</td><td>Prepare a 0.315 mg/ml solution in water immediately before use. Dissolve at 37 &amp;deg;C and filter sterilze. It is normal to observe undisolved sulfo-SANPAH in the filter. Sulfo-SANPAH is light sensitive and, therefore, the solution should be protect from light until UV exposure.</td></tr><tr><td>Poly-D-Lysine (PDL)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich (St. Loius, MO)</td><td>P6407</td><td>Prepare a 0.2 mg/ml solution in water and filter sterilize.</td></tr><tr><td>Collagen Type I</td><td>Affymetrix (Santa Clara, CA)&lt;br/&gt;affymetrix.com</td><td>13813</td><td>Prepare a 0.2 mg/ml solution in 0.2 N acetic acid. Solution needs to remain cold at all times to avoid polymerization. Acetic acid is a flammable, toxic, and corrosive.</td></tr><tr><td>22 x 60 cover glass</td><td>Fisher Scientific (Pittsburg, PA)</td><td>12-544-G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Positive-displacement pipette</td><td>Gilson, Inc (Middletown, WI)&lt;br/&gt;gilson.com</td><td>F148504</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heat block</td><td>Fisher Scientific (Pittsburg, PA)</td><td>11-718</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>UV light source</td><td></td><td></td><td>Place gels as close as possible to the UV light. UV light can cause skin or eye injury.</td></tr><tr><td>Thermometer</td><td></td><td></td><td>Any brand.</td></tr><tr><td>Nitrogen gas</td><td>GTS-Welco (Flemington, NJ)&lt;br/&gt;www.praxairmidatlantic.com/</td><td>NI 5.0UH-R</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

preparation of dna-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogels

Mechanobiology is an emerging scientific area that addresses the critical role of physical cues in directing cell morphology and function. For example, the effect of tissue elasticity on cell function is a major area of mechanobiology research because tissue stiffness modulates with disease, development, and injury. Static tissue-mimicking materials, or materials that cannot alter stiffness once cells are plated, are predominately used to investigate the effects of tissue stiffness on cell functions. While information gathered from static studies is valuable, these studies are not indicative of the dynamic nature of the cellular microenvironment in vivo. To better address the effects of dynamic stiffness on cell function, we developed a DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogel system (DNA gels). Unlike other dynamic substrates, DNA gels have the ability to decrease or increase in stiffness after fabrication without stimuli. DNA gels consist of DNA crosslinks that are polymerized into a polyacrylamide backbone. Adding and removing crosslinks via delivery of single-stranded DNA allows temporal, spatial, and reversible control of gel elasticity. We have shown in previous reports that dynamic modulation of DNA gel elasticity influences fibroblast and neuron behavior. In this report and video, we provide a schematic that describes the DNA gel crosslinking mechanisms and step-by-step instructions on the preparation DNA gels.

Prior to our studies, cell-ECM interactions were observed on static compliant biomaterials or on irreversible and unidirectional dynamic substrates. These substrates do not accurately reflect the dynamic nature of the cellular microenvironment. Our work shifts the existing technical paradigms by providing a more physiologic model for studying cell-ECM interactions on softening and stiffening dynamic biomaterials. In previous studies, we analyzed the effects of dynamic substrates on cells by examining various cell morphol...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of DNA-crosslinked Polyacrylamide Hydrogels at JoVE.com

Preparation of DNA-crosslinked Polyacrylamide Hydrogels

Our laboratory has developed DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogels, a dynamic hydrogel system, to better understand the effects of modulating tissue stiffness on cell function. Here, we provide schematics, descriptions, and protocols to prepare these hydrogels.

Mechanobiology is an emerging scientific area that addresses the critical role of physical cues in directing cell morphology and function. For example, ...

preparation-of-dna-crosslinked-polyacrylamide-hydrogels

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

14.5K Views.  JFK Medical Center. Our laboratory has developed DNA-crosslinked polyacrylamide hydrogels, a dynamic hydrogel system, to better understand the effects of modulating tissue stiffness on cell function. Here, we provide schematics, descriptions, and protocols to prepare these hydrogels.

Video: Preparation of DNA-crosslinked Polyacrylamide Hydrogels

Preparation of Complaint Matrices for Quantifying Cellular Contraction

The regulation of cellular adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential for cell migration and ECM remodeling. Focal adhesions are macromolecular assemblies that couple the contractile F-actin cytoskeleton to the ECM. This connection allows for the transmission of intracellular mechanical forces across the cell membrane to the underlying substrate. Recent work has shown the mechanical properties of the ECM regulate focal adhesion and F-actin morphology as well as numerous physiological processes, including cell differentiation, division, proliferation and migration. Thus, the use of cell culture substrates has become an increasingly prevalent method to precisely control and modulate ECM mechanical properties.
To quantify traction forces at focal adhesions in an adherent cell, compliant substrates are used in conjunction with high-resolution imaging and computational techniques in a method termed traction force microscopy (TFM). This technique relies on measurements of the local magnitude and direction of substrate deformations induced by cellular contraction. In combination with high-resolution fluorescence microscopy of fluorescently tagged proteins, it is possible to correlate cytoskeletal organization and remodeling with traction forces.
Here we present a detailed experimental protocol for the preparation of two-dimensional, compliant matrices for the purpose of creating a cell culture substrate with a well-characterized, tunable mechanical stiffness, which is suitable for measuring cellular contraction. These protocols include the fabrication of polyacrylamide hydrogels, coating of ECM proteins on such gels, plating cells on gels, and high-resolution confocal microscopy using a perfusion chamber. Additionally, we provide a representative sample of data demonstrating location and magnitude of cellular forces using cited TFM protocols.

In this video, we demonstrate the experimental techniques used to fabricate compliant, extracellular matrix (ECM) coated substrates suitable for cell culture, and which are amenable to traction force microscopy and observing effects of ECM stiffness on cell behavior.

The regulation of cellular adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential for cell migration and ECM remodeling.  Focal adhesions are ...

Bioengineering

DNA Polymerase Activity Assay Using Near-infrared Fluorescent Labeled DNA Visualized by Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis

For any enzyme, robust, quantitative methods are required for characterization of both native and engineered enzymes. For DNA polymerases, DNA synthesis can be characterized using an in vitro DNA synthesis assay followed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The goal of this assay is to quantify synthesis of both natural DNA and modified DNA (M-DNA). These approaches are particularly useful for resolving oligonucleotides with single nucleotide resolution, enabling observation of individual steps during enzymatic oligonucleotide synthesis. These methods have been applied to the evaluation of an array of biochemical and biophysical properties such as the measurement of steady-state rate constants of individual steps of DNA synthesis, the error rate of DNA synthesis, and DNA binding affinity. By using modified components including, but not limited to, modified nucleoside triphosphates (NTP), M-DNA, and/or mutant DNA polymerases, the relative utility of substrate-DNA polymerase pairs can be effectively evaluated. Here, we detail the assay itself, including the changes that must be made to accommodate nontraditional primer DNA labeling strategies such as near-infrared fluorescently labeled DNA. Additionally, we have detailed crucial technical steps for acrylamide gel pouring and running, which can often be technically challenging.

This protocol describes the characterization of DNA polymerase synthesis of modified DNA through observation of changes to near-infrared fluorescently labeled DNA using gel electrophoresis and gel imaging. Acrylamide gels are used for high resolution imaging of the separation of short nucleic acids, which migrate at different rates depending on size.

For any enzyme, robust, quantitative methods are required for characterization of both native and engineered enzymes. For DNA polymerases, DNA synthesis ...

Biochemistry

Preparation of Hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels for Decoupling the Effects of Mechanotransduction Cues

It is now well established that many cellular functions are regulated by interactions of cells with physicochemical and mechanical cues of their extracellular matrix (ECM) environment. Eukaryotic cells constantly sense their local microenvironment through surface mechanosensors to transduce physical changes of ECM into biochemical signals, and integrate these signals to achieve specific changes in gene expression. Interestingly, physicochemical and mechanical parameters of the ECM can couple with each other to regulate cell fate. Therefore, a key to understanding mechanotransduction is to decouple the relative contribution of ECM cues on cellular functions.
Here we present a detailed experimental protocol to rapidly and easily generate biologically relevant hydrogels for the independent tuning of mechanotransduction cues in vitro. We chemically modified polyacrylamide hydrogels (PAAm) to surmount their intrinsically non-adhesive properties by incorporating hydroxyl-functionalized acrylamide monomers during the polymerization. We obtained a novel PAAm hydrogel, called hydroxy-PAAm, which permits immobilization of any desired nature of ECM proteins. The combination of hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels with microcontact printing allows to independently control the morphology of single-cells, the matrix stiffness, the nature and the density of ECM proteins. We provide a simple and rapid method that can be set up in every biology lab to study in vitro cell mechanotransduction processes. We validate this novel two-dimensional platform by conducting experiments on endothelial cells that demonstrate a mechanical coupling between ECM stiffness and the nucleus.

We present a new polyacrylamide hydrogel, called hydroxy-PAAm, that allows a direct binding of ECM proteins with minimal cost or expertise. The combination of hydroxy-PAAm hydrogels with microcontact printing facilitates independent control of many cues of the natural cell microenvironment for studying cellular mechanostransduction.

It is now well established that many cellular functions are regulated by interactions of cells with physicochemical and mechanical cues of their ...

Simple Polyacrylamide-based Multiwell Stiffness Assay for the Study of Stiffness-dependent Cell Responses

Currently, most of the in vitro cell research is performed on rigid tissue culture polystyrene (~1 GPa), while most cells in the body are attached to a matrix that is elastic and much softer (0.1 &#8211; 100 kPa). Since such stiffness mismatch greatly affects cell responses, there is a strong interest in developing hydrogel materials that span a wide range of stiffness to serve as cell substrates. Polyacrylamide gels, which are inexpensive and cover the stiffness range of all soft tissues in the body, are the hydrogel of choice for many research groups. However, polyacrylamide gel preparation is lengthy, tedious, and only suitable for small batches. Here, we describe an assay which by utilizing a permanent flexible plastic film as a structural support for the gels, enables the preparation of polyacrylamide gels in a multiwell plate format. The technique is faster, more efficient, and less costly than current methods and permits the preparation of gels of custom sizes not otherwise available. As it doesn&#8217;t require any specialized equipment, the method could be easily adopted by any research laboratory and would be particularly useful in research focused on understanding stiffness-dependent cell responses.

Here, a method that enables quick, efficient, and inexpensive preparation of polyacrylamide gels in a multiwell plate format is described. The method does not require any specialized equipment and could be easily adopted by any research laboratory. It would be particularly useful in research focused on understanding stiffness-dependent cell responses.

Currently, most of the in vitro cell research is performed on rigid tissue culture polystyrene (~1 GPa), while most cells in the body are attached to a ...

Denaturing Urea Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (Urea PAGE)

Urea PAGE or denaturing urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis employs 6-8 M urea, which denatures secondary DNA or RNA structures and is used for their separation in a polyacrylamide gel matrix based on the molecular weight. Fragments between 2 to 500 bases, with length differences as small as a single nucleotide, can be separated using this method1. The migration of the sample is dependent on the chosen acrylamide concentration. A higher percentage of polyacrylamide resolves lower molecular weight fragments. The combination of urea and temperatures of 45-55 &deg;C during the gel run allows for the separation of unstructured DNA or RNA molecules.
In general this method is required to analyze or purify single stranded DNA or RNA fragments, such as synthesized or labeled oligonucleotides or products from enzymatic cleavage reactions.
In this video article we show how to prepare and run the denaturing urea polyacrylamide gels. Technical tips are included, in addition to the original protocol 1,2.

Denaturing Urea Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis Urea PAGE

Denaturing urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is used to separate single-stranded DNA or RNA up to a limit of 500 nucleotides. Urea in combination with heat denatures samples and unstructured single strands migrate within the gel matrix according to their molecular weight.

Urea PAGE or denaturing urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis employs 6-8 M urea, which denatures secondary DNA or RNA structures and is used for their ...

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering 

The 3D encapsulation of cells within hydrogels represents an increasingly important and popular technique for culturing cells and towards the development of constructs for tissue engineering. This environment better mimics what cells observe in vivo, compared to standard tissue culture, due to the tissue-like properties and 3D environment. Synthetic polymeric hydrogels are water-swollen networks that can be designed to be stable or to degrade through hydrolysis or proteolysis as new tissue is deposited by encapsulated cells. A wide variety of polymers have been explored for these applications, such as poly(ethylene glycol) and hyaluronic acid. Most commonly, the polymer is functionalized with reactive groups such as methacrylates or acrylates capable of undergoing crosslinking through various mechanisms. In the past decade, much progress has been made in engineering these microenvironments - e.g., via the physical or pendant covalent incorporation of biochemical cues - to improve viability and direct cellular phenotype, including the differentiation of encapsulated stem cells (Burdick et al.).
The following methods for the 3D encapsulation of cells have been optimized in our and other laboratories to maximize cytocompatibility and minimize the number of hydrogel processing steps. In the following protocols (see Figure 1 for an illustration of the procedure), it is assumed that functionalized polymers capable of undergoing crosslinking are already in hand; excellent reviews of polymer chemistry as applied to the field of tissue engineering may be found elsewhere (Burdick et al.) and these methods are compatible with a range of polymer types. Further, the Michael-type addition (see Lutolf et al.) and light-initiated free radical (see Elisseeff et al.) mechanisms focused on here constitute only a small portion of the reported crosslinking techniques. Mixed mode crosslinking, in which a portion of reactive groups is first consumed by addition crosslinking and followed by a radical mechanism, is another commonly used and powerful paradigm for directing the phenotype of encapsulated cells (Khetan et al., Salinas et al.).

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering

We present protocols for the 3-dimensional (3D) encapsulation of cells within synthetic hydrogels. The encapsulation procedure is outlined for two commonly used methods of crosslinking (michael-type addition and light-initiated free radical mechanisms), as well as a number of techniques for assessing encapsulated cell behavior.

The 3D encapsulation of cells within hydrogels represents an increasingly important and popular technique for culturing cells and towards the development ...

A High-throughput Cell Microarray Platform for Correlative Analysis of Cell Differentiation and Traction Forces

Microfabricated cellular microarrays, which consist of contact-printed combinations of biomolecules on an elastic hydrogel surface, provide a tightly controlled, high-throughput engineered system for measuring the impact of arrayed biochemical signals on cell differentiation. Recent efforts using cell microarrays have demonstrated their utility for combinatorial studies in which many microenvironmental factors are presented in parallel. However, these efforts have focused primarily on investigating the effects of biochemical cues on cell responses. Here, we present a cell microarray platform with tunable material properties for evaluating both cell differentiation by immunofluorescence and biomechanical cell&#8211;substrate interactions by traction force microscopy. To do so, we have developed two different formats utilizing polyacrylamide hydrogels of varying Young&#39;s modulus fabricated on either microscope slides or glass-bottom Petri dishes. We provide best practices and troubleshooting for the fabrication of microarrays on these hydrogel substrates, the subsequent cell culture on microarrays, and the acquisition of data. This platform is well-suited for use in investigations of biological processes for which both biochemical (e.g., extracellular matrix composition) and biophysical (e.g., substrate stiffness) cues may play significant, intersecting roles.

Cell differentiation is regulated by a host of microenvironmental factors, including both matrix composition and substrate material properties. We describe here a technique utilizing cell microarrays in conjunction with traction force microscopy to evaluate both cell differentiation and biomechanical cell&#8211;substrate interactions as a function of microenvironmental context.

Microfabricated cellular microarrays, which consist of contact-printed combinations of biomolecules on an elastic hydrogel surface, provide a tightly ...

Studying the Effects of Matrix Stiffness on Cellular Function using Acrylamide-based Hydrogels

Tissue stiffness is an important determinant of cellular function, and changes in tissue stiffness are commonly associated with fibrosis, cancer and cardiovascular disease1-11. Traditional cell biological approaches to studying cellular function involve culturing cells on a rigid substratum (plastic dishes or glass coverslips) which cannot account for the effect of an elastic ECM or the variations in ECM stiffness between tissues. To model in vivo tissue compliance conditions in vitro, we and others use ECM-coated hydrogels. In our laboratory, the hydrogels are based on polyacrylamide which can mimic the range of tissue compliances seen biologically12. "Reactive" cover slips are generated by incubation with NaOH followed by addition of 3-APTMS. Glutaraldehyde is used to cross-link the 3-APTMS and the polyacrylamide gel. A solution of acrylamide (AC), bis-acrylamide (Bis-AC) and ammonium persulfate is used for the polymerization of the hydrogel. N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) is incorporated into the AC solution to crosslink ECM protein to the hydrogel. Following polymerization of the hydrogel, the gel surface is coated with an ECM protein of choice such as fibronectin, vitronectin, collagen, etc.
The stiffness of a hydrogel can be determined by rheology or atomic force microscopy (AFM) and adjusted by varying the percentage of AC and/or bis-AC in the solution12. In this manner, substratum stiffness can be matched to the stiffness of biological tissues which can also be quantified using rheology or AFM. Cells can then be seeded on these hydrogels and cultured based upon the experimental conditions required. Imaging of the cells and their recovery for molecular analysis is straightforward. For this article, we define soft substrata as those having elastic moduli (E) &lt;3000 Pascal and stiff substrata/tissues as those with E &gt;20,000 Pascal.

The effect of substrata stiffness on cellular function can be modeled in vitro using polyacrylamide hydrogels of varying compliances.

Tissue stiffness is an important determinant of cellular function, and changes in tissue stiffness are commonly associated with fibrosis, cancer and ...

Gel-seq: A Method for Simultaneous Sequencing Library Preparation of DNA and RNA Using Hydrogel Matrices

The ability to amplify and sequence either DNA or RNA from small starting samples has only been achieved in the last five years. Unfortunately, the standard protocols for generating genomic or transcriptomic libraries are incompatible and researchers must choose whether to sequence DNA or RNA for a particular sample. Gel-seq solves this problem by enabling researchers to simultaneously prepare libraries for both DNA and RNA starting with 100 - 1000 cells using a simple hydrogel device. This paper presents a detailed approach for the fabrication of the device as well as the biological protocol to generate paired libraries. We designed Gel-seq so that it could be easily implemented by other researchers; many genetics labs already have the necessary equipment to reproduce the Gel-seq device fabrication. Our protocol employs commonly-used kits for both whole-transcript amplification (WTA) and library preparation, which are also likely to be familiar to researchers already versed in generating genomic and transcriptomic libraries. Our approach allows researchers to bring to bear the power of both DNA and RNA sequencing on a single sample without splitting and with negligible added cost.

Gel-seq enables researchers to simultaneously prepare libraries for both DNA- and RNA-seq at negligible added cost starting from 100 - 1000 cells using a simple hydrogel device. This paper presents a detailed approach for the fabrication of the device as well as the biological protocol to generate paired libraries.

The ability to amplify and sequence either DNA or RNA from small starting samples has only been achieved in the last five years. Unfortunately, the ...

Iterative Optimization of DNA Duplexes for Crystallization of SeqA-DNA Complexes

Escherichia coli SeqA is a negative regulator of DNA replication that prevents premature reinitiation events by sequestering hemimethylated GATC clusters within the origin of replication1. Beyond the origin, SeqA is found at the replication forks, where it organizes newly replicated DNA into higher ordered structures2. SeqA associates only weakly with single GATC sequences, but it forms high affinity complexes with DNA duplexes containing multiple GATC sites. The minimal functional and structural unit of SeqA is a dimer, thereby explaining the requirement of at least two GATC sequences to form a high-affinity complex with hemimethylated DNA3. Additionally, the SeqA architecture, with the oligomerization and DNA-binding domains separated by a flexible linker, allows binding to GATC repeats separated by up to three helical turns. Therefore, understanding the function of SeqA at a molecular level requires the structural analysis of SeqA bound to multiple GATC sequences. In protein-DNA crystallization, DNA can have none to an exceptional effect on the packing interactions depending on the relative sizes and architecture of the protein and the DNA. If the protein is larger than the DNA or footprints most of the DNA, the crystal packing is primarily mediated by protein-protein interactions. Conversely, when the protein is the same size or smaller than the DNA or it only covers a fraction of the DNA, DNA-DNA and DNA-protein interactions dominate crystal packing. Therefore, crystallization of protein-DNA complexes requires the systematic screening of DNA length4 and DNA ends (blunt or overhang)5-7. In this report, we describe how to design, optimize, purify and crystallize hemimethylated DNA duplexes containing tandem GATC repeats in complex with a dimeric variant of SeqA (SeqA&Delta;(41-59)-A25R) to obtain crystals suitable for structure determination.

Crystal structure of protein&#x2013;DNA complexes can provide insight into protein function, mechanism, as well as, the nature of the specific interaction. Here, we report how to optimize the length, sequence and ends of duplex DNA for co-crystallization with Escherichia coli SeqA, a negative regulator of replication initiation.

Escherichia coli SeqA is a negative regulator of DNA replication that prevents premature reinitiation events by sequestering hemimethylated GATC clusters ...

Preparation of DNA-crosslinked Polyacrylamide Hydrogels

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Rozdziały w tym wideo

Preparation of Complaint Matrices for Quantifying Cellular Contraction

DNA Polymerase Activity Assay Using Near-infrared Fluorescent Labeled DNA Visualized by Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis

Preparation of Hydroxy-PAAm Hydrogels for Decoupling the Effects of Mechanotransduction Cues

Simple Polyacrylamide-based Multiwell Stiffness Assay for the Study of Stiffness-dependent Cell Responses

Denaturing Urea Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (Urea PAGE)

Cellular Encapsulation in 3D Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering

A High-throughput Cell Microarray Platform for Correlative Analysis of Cell Differentiation and Traction Forces

Studying the Effects of Matrix Stiffness on Cellular Function using Acrylamide-based Hydrogels

Gel-seq: A Method for Simultaneous Sequencing Library Preparation of DNA and RNA Using Hydrogel Matrices

Iterative Optimization of DNA Duplexes for Crystallization of SeqA-DNA Complexes