Name: measuring glutathione-induced feeding response in hydra
Uploaded: 2014-11-16T15:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 8 min 10 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra at JoVE.com

Authors are thankful to K. P. Madhu, Nita Beliappa and staff of the Media Centre of Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune for their help in the video production. The work was supported by funding under the Centre of Excellence program of Department of Biotechnology, Government of India to SG and postdoctoral fellowship by Department of Science and Technology, Government of India to RK.

먹이 응답 1. 히드라 문화 및 측정 <ol><li> 에 포함 (1 mM 트리스 - 염산 완충액, pH를 7.6, 1 ㎜의 NaCl, 1 mM의 염화칼슘 2, 0.1 mM의 KCl을, 0.1 mM의 황산을) 아테 매일 그들을 먹이 매체를 유지하여 문화의 히드라 폴립을 유지 12 시간 빛-12 시간 어두운 사이클에서 18 ° C에서 유리 그릇은 이전 12 설명 된대로. </li><li> 급전 반응을 측정하기위한, 하나의 24- 웰 플레이트의 한 웰에 5-6 촉수를 갖는 히드라 폴립 성숙 옮긴다. 를 기울여 우물에서 잔류 매체를 제거하고 즉시 신선한 매체의 500 μl를 추가합니다. </li><li> 히드라 매체에 9 μm의 글루타티온 솔루션을 준비합니다. 글루타티온 솔루션이 산화하는 경향이 있기 때문에, 항상 각 실험에 대한 새로 제조 된 글루타티온 솔루션을 사용합니다. </li><li> 화상 기록을위한 규정을 가지는 현미경의 이미징 플랫폼에 전송 플레이트. 행동 O 그 같은 어두운 배경을 사용하여F 히드라 폴립 명확하게 대비되는 배경 이미지를 만들 수 있습니다. </li><li> 방은 관찰하고 변동 강도, 공기 흐름 및 소음의 조명에서 히드라 무료의 동작을 이미징에 사용됩니다. 심지어 글루타티온의 부재 - 이러한 장애는 히드라 폴립은 촉수의 수축을 보여 발생할 수 있습니다. </li><li> 용종이 5 분 동안 휴식을 취할 수 있습니다. </li><li> 용종이 문제가 명확하게 영상화 할 수 있음을 잘 같은의 중심 지역을 따라 위치하고 있는지 확인합니다. 용종이 우물의 가장자리에있는 경우, 피펫을 사용하여 매체를 세척하여 센터로 가져가 다시 휴식 할 수 있습니다. </li><li> 편안한 상태에서 히드라의 이미지를 캡처합니다. 이것은 제로 시점 관찰 될 것입니다. </li><li> 신속 웰에서 3 μM의 최종 농도에 도달하는 9 μM 글루타치온 용액을 첨가. 히드라로 나타낸 실험과 응답의 목적에 따라, 글루타티온 및 츄 상이한 농도의 범위를 테스트필요한 적절한 농도를 SE는. </li><li> 바로 4 ~ 5 분 동안 모든 15 ~ 30 초 후 글루타티온 솔루션과 캡처 이미지를 추가 한 후 타이머를 시작합니다. 시간 경과 이미징 동안 배율 설정을 변경하지 마십시오. </li><li> 부드럽게 웰에 동물의 위치가 최소 현미경의 시야에 방해 될 것 같은 균일 한 흐름 글루타티온 용액을 추가한다. 용종 글루타티온 용액을 첨가 한 후에 광범위하게 이동하는 경우, 이미지 캡쳐를위한 시야에 폴립을 가지고 매우 부드럽게 플레이트를 이동. </li><li> 대조 실험에서, 동일한 모든 다른 파라미터를 유지하면서 매체 글루타티온 결여 사용. </li><li> 오후 1시 전에 먹이 반응의 정도에 일주기 리듬의 가능한 효과를 방지하기 - 오늘의 상반기 위의 실험 단계를 모두 수행해야합니다. </li><li> GNU 이미지 조작 프로그램 (GIMP)를 사용하여 촬영 된 이미지의 각을 엽니 다. </lI&gt; <li> 촉수와 hypostome 각각의 정점 끝 사이의 거리를 결정하기 위해 측정&gt; 메뉴&gt; 도구에서 사용할 수있는 &quot;측정&quot;도구를 사용합니다. 입 개구가 이미지 중 관찰되는 경우, 개방 입의 중심과 정점 촉수의 단부 사이의 거리를 결정한다. 촉수 확산 등이 거리를 참조하십시오. </li><li> 이전과 글루타티온 노출 후 각 용종의 평균 촉수 확산을 계산합니다. 이후의 시간 포인트에 각각 것과 제로 시점에서 평균 촉수 확산의 비율을 계산한다. 이 비율은 상대적 촉수 확산 호출됩니다. </li><li> 적어도 20 폴립에 대한 측정을 반복합니다. </li></ol><img alt="식 (1)" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52178/52178eq1.jpg" width="400" /> <img alt="수학 식 2" fo:content-width="4in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52178/52178eq2.jpg" width="450" /> 2. 방법 유효성 검사를 사용하여기아 모델 <ol><li> 기아의 경우, 별도의 유리 그릇에 몇 히드라 폴립을 전송하고 5 일간을 공급하지 않습니다. 비슷한 크기의 그릇에 아테 매일 몇 폴립의 제어 그룹을 피드. 두 실험이 매체에 곰팡이 성장을 방지하기 위해 매일 그릇에서 매체를 변경합니다. </li><li> 실험 날에, 1 시간 동안 아테로 히드라의 대조군을 먹이고 매체로부터 모두 먹지 죽은 아테을 제거한 후 다음의 실험에 대해 이러한 히드라를 사용한다. </li><li> 인해 관찰 시간에 치우침을 방지하기 위해 이전의 단계 1에 기재된 방법에 의해 대조군 히드라 비해 공복 히드라의 공급 응답을 측정 결핍의 각각의 측정을 교번 및 히드라 폴립을 제어한다. </li></ol>

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The authors declare no competing financial interests.

히드라의 동작을 먹이하면 후생 동물에서 가장 조상의 화학 감각 시스템 중 하나를 나타냅니다. 자포를 이용한 먹이 캡처 이후에 출시 된 갑각류 유체에서 GSH의 존재는 오래 전 일을 발견했지만, GSHR 단백질이나 추정 인코딩 유전자 / S도는 히드라에서 최신 특징으로하고있다. 몇몇 시도 GSH가 히드라 8, 14, 15에 결합 단백질을 특성화하기 위해 이루어지고있다. 그러나, 이러한 추정?...

Hydra is the most primitive organism possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey1. It feeds on a variety of animals such as nematode, crustacea, insect larvae, tadpoles and newly hatched fish1. The movement of these prey organisms causes mechanosensory discharge of the stinging capsules called nematocysts from hydra, which are inserted into the prey2. GSH present in the fluid released from the injured prey subsequently activates the feeding response in hydra which includes curling of the tentacles to bring the prey towards the mouth, opening of the mouth, and consequent engulfing of the prey. Multiple molecules, such as dopamine3, glutamate4, GABA, glycine5, NMDA receptors6, and allatotropin7, have been shown to be involved in the feeding response in hydra. It has also been shown that the chemosensory response induced by GSH is modulated by the feeding status of the animal such that starved hydra exhibited enhanced feeding response1. Such an increase in the GSH sensitivity is biologically relevant since under starvation hydra need to find its prey at higher sensitivity. 
Although the feeding response induced by GSH can be clearly observed under microscope, the methods typically used for measuring the feeding response observations are non-quantitative. In most of the cases, the time during which the mouth of the hydra remains open was taken as a measure of the feeding response8,9; whereas in another case, quantitation was based on the number of hydra out of a population showing the feeding response10. However, observing the mouth opening time of the hydra polyps is cumbersome and subject to variation induced by uncontrollable parameters such as the direction of the mouth orientation during observations. Similarly, since the feeding response is a quantitative parameter, population-based approaches are subject to variations/errors caused by the opinion or observational bias of the individual observer. To circumvent these issues we have developed a method for the relative quantification of the feeding response in hydra (Hydra vulgaris Ind-Pune11) based on the distance of the apical end of the tentacle from the mouth of the hydra polyp.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Cooled Incubator</td><td>Panasonic&amp;nbsp;</td><td>MIR-254-PE</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope</td><td>Leica</td><td>S8AP0&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Camera for the microscope</td><td>Leica&amp;nbsp;</td><td>EC3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Reduced glutathione</td><td>Sigma</td><td>G4251</td><td>Stored at 4 &amp;deg;C. Bring the bottle to room temperature before opening to avoid oxidation</td></tr><tr><td>Image editing program</td><td>GIMP</td><td>Version 2.8</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

measuring glutathione-induced feeding response in hydra

Hydra is among the most primitive organisms possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey. The movement of prey organisms causes mechanosensory discharge of the stinging cells called nematocysts from hydra, which are inserted into the prey. The feeding response in hydra, which includes curling of the tentacles to bring the prey towards the mouth, opening of the mouth and consequent engulfing of the prey, is triggered by GSH present in the fluid released from the injured prey. To be able to identify the molecular mechanism of the feeding response in hydra which is unknown to date, it is necessary to establish an assay to measure the feeding response. Here, we describe a simple method for the quantitation of the feeding response in which the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra is measured and the ratio of such distance before and after the addition of GSH is determined. The ratio, called the relative tentacle spread, was found to give a measure of the feeding response. This assay was validated using a starvation model in which starved hydra show an enhanced feeding response in comparison with daily fed hydra.

글루타티온은 히드라가 먹이를 집어 삼키고의 목적을 위해 입으로 촉수의 컬링을 전시됩니다. 촉수의 이러한 컬링 가까이 hypostome에 촉수의 혀끝의 끝을 제공합니다. 이것은 촉수 확산의 감소, 또는 촉수와 hypostome (도 1)의 말단 치근단 간의 직선 거리 초래한다. 상대 촉수 확산 또는 평균 촉수의 비율은 이전에 확산 및 글루타티온을 추가 한 후, 시간이 지남에 따라 감소 여러 폴립 걸?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra at JoVE.com

Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra

Here we describe a simple assay for the quantification of the feeding response in hydra induced by the reduced form of glutathione. This assay relies on measuring the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra.

히드라의 글루타티온 유도 먹이 반응을 측정

Hydra is among the most primitive organisms possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey. ...

measuring-glutathione-induced-feeding-response-in-hydra

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

11.3K 조회수.  India Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune. Here we describe a simple assay for the quantification of the feeding response in hydra induced by the reduced form of glutathione. This assay relies on measuring the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra.

비디오: Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra

Imaging Approaches to Assessments of Toxicological Oxidative Stress Using Genetically-encoded Fluorogenic Sensors

While oxidative stress is a commonly cited toxicological mechanism, conventional methods to study it suffer from a number of shortcomings, including destruction of the sample, introduction of potential artifacts, and a lack of specificity for the reactive species involved. Thus, there is a current need in the field of toxicology for non-destructive, sensitive, and specific methods that can be used to observe and quantify intracellular redox perturbations, more commonly referred to as oxidative stress. Here, we present a method for the use of two genetically-encoded fluorogenic sensors, roGFP2 and HyPer, to be used in live-cell imaging studies to observe xenobiotic-induced oxidative responses. roGFP2 equilibrates with the glutathione redox potential (EGSH), while HyPer directly detects hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Both sensors can be expressed into various cell types via transfection or transduction, and can be targeted to specific cellular compartments. Most importantly, live-cell microscopy using these sensors offers high spatial and temporal resolution that is not possible using conventional methods. Changes in the fluorescence intensity monitored at 510 nm serves as the readout for both genetically-encoded fluorogenic sensors when sequentially excited by 404 nm and 488 nm light. This property makes both sensors ratiometric, eliminating common microscopy artifacts and correcting for differences in sensor expression between cells. This methodology can be applied across a variety of fluorometric platforms capable of exciting and collecting emissions at the prescribed wavelengths, making it suitable for use with confocal imaging systems, conventional wide-field microscopy, and plate readers. Both genetically-encoded fluorogenic sensors have been used in a variety of cell types and toxicological studies to monitor cellular EGSH and H2O2 generation in real-time. Outlined here is a standardized method that is widely adaptable across cell types and fluorometric platforms for the application of roGFP2 and HyPer in live-cell toxicological assessments of oxidative stress.

This manuscript describes the use of genetically-encoded fluorogenic reporters in an application of live-cell imaging for the examination of xenobiotic-induced oxidative stress. This experimental approach offers unparalleled spatiotemporal resolution, sensitivity, and specificity while avoiding many of the shortcomings of conventional methods used for the detection of toxicological oxidative stress.

유전자로 인코딩된 Fluorogenic 센서를 사용 하 여 독성 산화 스트레스의 평가에 접근을 이미징

While oxidative stress is a commonly cited toxicological mechanism, conventional methods to study it suffer from a number of shortcomings, including ...

연구

암 연구학

Combining Quantitative Food-intake Assays and Forcibly Activating Neurons to Study Appetite in Drosophila

Food consumption is under the tight control of the brain, which integrates the physiological status, palatability, and nutritional contents of the food, and issues commands to start or stop feeding. Deciphering the processes underlying the decision-making of timely and moderate feeding carries major implications in our understanding of physiological and psychological disorders related to feeding control. Simple, quantitative, and robust methods are required to measure the food ingestion of animals after experimental manipulation, such as forcibly increasing the activities of certain target neurons. Here, we introduced dye-labeling-based feeding assays to facilitate the neurogenetic study of feeding control in adult fruit flies. We review available feeding assays, and then describe our methods step-by-step from setup to analysis, which combine thermogenetic and optogenetic manipulation of neurons controlling feeding motivation with dye-labeled food intake assay. We also discuss the advantages and limitations of our methods, compared with other feeding assays, to help readers choose an appropriate assay.

Combining Quantitative Food-intake Assays and Forcibly Activating Neurons to Study Appetite in Drosophila

Quantitative food-intake assays with dyed food provide a robust and high-throughput means to evaluate feeding motivation. Combining the food consumption assay with thermogenetic and optogenetic screens is a powerful approach to investigate the neural circuits underlying appetite in adult Drosophila melanogaster.

양이 많은 음식 섭취 량 분석을 결합 하 고 강제로 초파리 에서 식욕을 공부 하는 뉴런을 활성화

Food consumption is under the tight control of the brain, which integrates the physiological status, palatability, and nutritional contents of the food, ...

행동분석학

Measurement of Glutamate Uptake using Radiolabeled L-[3H]-Glutamate in Acute Transverse Slices Obtained from Rodent Resected Hippocampus

Glutamate removal from the extracellular space by high-affinity Na+-dependent transporters is essential to ensure that the brain&#39;s intrinsic connectivity mechanisms work properly and homeostasis is maintained. The hippocampus is a unique brain structure that manages higher cognitive functions, and is the subject of several studies regarding neurologic diseases. The investigation of physiological and pathological mechanisms in rodent models can benefit from acute hippocampal slice (AHS) preparations. AHS has the advantage of providing reliable information on cell function since the cytoarchitecture and synaptic circuits are preserved. Although AHS preparations are commonly used in neurochemistry laboratories, it is possible to find some methodological differences in the literature. Considering that distinctive slice preparation protocols might change the hippocampal regions analyzed, this current protocol proposes a standard technique for obtaining transverse AHS from resected hippocampus. This simple-to-perform protocol may be used in mice and rats&#39; experimental models and allow several ex vivo approaches investigating neurochemical dynamics (in dorsal, intermediate and ventral hippocampus) in different backgrounds (e.g., transgenic manipulations) or after in vivo manipulations (e.g., pharmacological treatments or suitable rodent models to study clinical disorders). After dissecting the hippocampus from the rodent brain, transverse slices along the septo-temporal axis (300 &#181;m thick) were obtained. These AHS contain distinct parts of the hippocampus and were subjected to an individual neurochemical investigation (as an example: neurotransmitter transporters using their respective substrates). As the hippocampus presents a high density of excitatory synapses, and glutamate is the most important neurotransmitter in the brain, the glutamatergic system is an interesting target for in vivo observed phenomena. Thus, the current protocol provides detailed steps to explore glutamate uptake in ex vivo AHS using L-[3H]-Glutamate. Using this protocol to investigate hippocampal function may help to better understand the influence of glutamate metabolism on mechanisms of neuroprotection or neurotoxicity.

Measurement of Glutamate Uptake using Radiolabeled L-[3H]-Glutamate in Acute Transverse Slices Obtained from Rodent Resected Hippocampus

This article describes a reliable and simple way to obtain ex vivo acute hippocampal transverse slices from mice and rats using a tissue chopper. Slices obtained from resected hippocampi can be submitted for functional glutamate uptake analysis to investigate glutamatergic system homeostasis.

Glutamate removal from the extracellular space by high-affinity Na+-dependent transporters is essential to ensure that the brain&#39;s intrinsic ...

생화학

예쁜꼬마선충(Caenorhabditis elegans)의 식품 섭취량과 수명을 측정하기 위한 고처리량 분석

Quantifying Food Intake in Caenorhabditis elegans by Measuring Bacterial Clearance

Feeding is an essential biological process for an organism&#39;s growth, reproduction, and survival. This assay aims to measure the food intake of Caenorhabditis elegans&#160;(C. elegans), an important parameter when studying the genetics of aging or metabolism. In most species, feeding is determined by measuring the difference between the amount of food provided and the amount left after a given time interval. The method presented here uses the same strategy to determine the feeding of C. elegans. It measures the amount of bacteria, the food source of C. elegans, cleared within 72 h. This method uses 96-well microtiter plates and has allowed the screening of hundreds of drugs for their ability to modulate food intake at a speed and depth not possible in other animal models. The strength of this assay is that it allows to measure feeding and lifespan simultaneously and directly measures the disappearance of food and, thus, is based on the same principles used for other organisms, facilitating species-to-species comparison.

저자 스포트라이트: 지독성과 HFpEF의 관계 탐구 

This protocol describes an assay to quantify Caenorhabditis elegans feeding rate based on measuring the clearance of bacteria in liquid culture.

예쁜꼬마선충( Caenorhabditis elegans )의 음식 섭취량을 세균 청소율 측정으로 정량화

Feeding is an essential biological process for an organism&#39;s growth, reproduction, and survival. This assay aims to measure the food intake of ...

GSH/GSSG 측정 – 항산화 연구를 위한 정제된 OPA 분석

Rapid Quantification of Oxidized and Reduced Forms of Glutathione Using Ortho -phthalaldehyde in Cultured Mammalian Cells In Vitro

Glutathione has long been considered a key biomarker for determining the antioxidant response of the cell. Hence, it is a primary marker for reactive oxygen species studies. The method utilizes Ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) to quantify the cellular concentration of glutathione(s). OPA conjugates with reduced glutathione (GSH) via sulfhydryl binding to subsequently form an isoindole, resulting in a highly fluorescent conjugate. To attain an accurate result of both oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and GSH, a combination of masking agents and reducing agents, which have been implemented in this protocol, are required. Treatments may also impact cellular viability. Hence, normalization via protein assay is presented in this multiparametric assay. The assay demonstrates a pseudo-linear detection range of 0.234 - 30&#181;M (R2=0.9932&#177;0.007 (N=12)) specific to GSH. The proposed assay also allows for the determination of oxidized glutathione with the addition of the masking agent N-ethylmaleimide to bind reduced glutathione, and the reducing agent tris(2-carboxyethyl) phosphine is introduced to cleave the disulfide bond in GSSG to produce two molecules of GSH. The assay is used in combination with a validated bicinchoninic acid assay for protein quantification and an adenylate kinase assay for cytotoxicity assessment.

저자 스포트라이트: 산화 스트레스 연구를 위한 혁신적인 티올 정량화 및 바이오마커 검출 

Quantification of both oxidized and reduced forms of glutathione (GSSG and GSH, respectively) has been achieved through the use of Ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA). OPA becomes highly fluorescent once conjugated to GSH but is unable to conjugate GSSG until reduced. Here, we describe a multiparametric assay to quantify both using protein quantification for normalization.

In vitro에서 배양된 포유류 세포에서 ortho -phthaldehyde를 사용한 산화 및 환원 형태의 글루타치온의 신속한 정량화

Glutathione has long been considered a key biomarker for determining the antioxidant response of the cell. Hence, it is a primary marker for reactive ...

Generation and Long-term Maintenance of Nerve-free Hydra

The interstitial cell lineage of Hydra includes multipotent stem cells, and their derivatives: gland cells, nematocytes, germ cells, and nerve cells. The interstitial cells can be eliminated through two consecutive treatments with colchicine, a plant-derived toxin that kills dividing cells, thus erasing the potential for renewal of the differentiated cells that are derived from the interstitial stem cells. This allows for the generation of Hydra that lack nerve cells. A nerve-free polyp cannot open its mouth to feed, egest, or regulate osmotic pressure. Such animals, however, can survive and be cultured indefinitely in the laboratory if regularly force-fed and burped. The lack of nerve cells allows for studies of the role of the nervous system in regulating animal behavior and regeneration. Previously published protocols for nerve-free Hydra maintenance involve outdated techniques such as mouth-pipetting with hand-pulled micropipette tips to feed and clean the Hydra. Here, an improved protocol for maintenance of nerve-free Hydra is introduced. Fine-tipped forceps are used to force open the mouth and insert freshly killed Artemia. Following force-feeding, the body cavity of the animal is flushed with fresh medium using a syringe and hypodermic needle to remove undigested material, referred to here as "burping". This new method of force-feeding and burping nerve-free Hydra through the use of forceps and syringes eliminates the need for mouth-pipetting using hand-pulled micropipette tips. It thus makes the process safer and significantly more time efficient. To ensure that the nerve cells in the hypostome have been eliminated, immunohistochemistry using anti-tyrosine-tubulin is conducted.

Generation and Long-term Maintenance of Nerve-free Hydra

Through a double treatment with colchicine, a plant-derived toxin that kills dividing cells, nerve-free Hydra vulgaris can be generated. These Hydra cannot feed or egest on their own. This paper describes an improved method for long-term maintenance of nerve free Hydra vulgaris in the laboratory.

신경이없는 세대의 장기간 유지 관리<em&gt; 히드라</em

The interstitial cell lineage of Hydra includes multipotent stem cells, and their derivatives: gland cells, nematocytes, germ cells, and nerve cells. The ...

히드라의 글루타티온 유도 먹이 반응을 측정

요약

더 많은 비디오 탐색

이 비디오의 챕터

유전자로 인코딩된 Fluorogenic 센서를 사용 하 여 독성 산화 스트레스의 평가에 접근을 이미징

양이 많은 음식 섭취 량 분석을 결합 하 고 강제로 초파리 에서 식욕을 공부 하는 뉴런을 활성화

Measurement of Glutamate Uptake using Radiolabeled L-[³H]-Glutamate in Acute Transverse Slices Obtained from Rodent Resected Hippocampus

예쁜꼬마선충( Caenorhabditis elegans )의 음식 섭취량을 세균 청소율 측정으로 정량화

예쁜꼬마선충( Caenorhabditis elegans )의 음식 섭취량을 세균 청소율 측정으로 정량화

예쁜꼬마선충( Caenorhabditis elegans )의 음식 섭취량을 세균 청소율 측정으로 정량화

In vitro에서 배양된 포유류 세포에서 ortho -phthaldehyde를 사용한 산화 및 환원 형태의 글루타치온의 신속한 정량화

In vitro에서 배양된 포유류 세포에서 ortho -phthaldehyde를 사용한 산화 및 환원 형태의 글루타치온의 신속한 정량화

In vitro에서 배양된 포유류 세포에서 ortho -phthaldehyde를 사용한 산화 및 환원 형태의 글루타치온의 신속한 정량화

신경이없는 세대의 장기간 유지 관리