The authors would like to thank Matt Reinke and the Alcator C-Mod team for designing, building, and testing HIREXSR. This work was supported by DOE Contract Nos. DE-FC02-99ER54512 and DE-AC02-76CH03073.

<ol>
	<li>Reinke, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=X-ray+imaging+crystal+spectroscopy+for+use+in+plasma+transport+research.">X-ray imaging crystal spectroscopy for use in plasma transport research.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 83 (11), 113504 (2012).</li><li>Hill, K. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+High+Resolution+X-Ray+Imaging+Crystal+Spectrometer+for+Measurement+of+Ion-Temperature+and+Rotation-Velocity+Profiles+in+Fusion+Energy+Research+Plasmas.">Development of a High Resolution X-Ray Imaging Crystal Spectrometer for Measurement of Ion-Temperature and Rotation-Velocity Profiles in Fusion Energy Research Plasmas.</a> Plasma Fusion Res. 2, 1067-1067 (2007).</li><li>Greenwald, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=20+years+of+research+on+the+Alcator+C-Mod+tokamak.">20 years of research on the Alcator C-Mod tokamak.</a> Phys. Plasmas. 21 (11), 110501 (2014).</li><li>Rice, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=X-ray+observations+of+medium+Z+H-+and+He-like+ions+with+satellites+from+C-Mod+tokamak+plasmas.">X-ray observations of medium Z H- and He-like ions with satellites from C-Mod tokamak plasmas.</a> J. Phys. B. 48 (14), 144013 (2015).</li><li>Ince-Cushman, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rotation+studies+in+fusion+plasmas+via+imaging+X-ray+crystal+spectroscopy.">Rotation studies in fusion plasmas via imaging X-ray crystal spectroscopy.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 79, (2008).</li><li>Zachariasen, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Theory of X-Ray Diffraction in Crystals. , (2004).</li><li>Johann, H. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Die+Erzeugung+lichtstarker+R&#246;ntgenspektren+mit+Hilfe+von+Konkavkristallen.">Die Erzeugung lichtstarker R&#246;ntgenspektren mit Hilfe von Konkavkristallen.</a> Zeitschrift f&#252;r Physik. 69 (3-4), 185-206 (1931).</li><li>Wang, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calculation+of+the+Johann+error+for+spherically+bent+x-ray+imaging+crystal+spectrometers.">Calculation of the Johann error for spherically bent x-ray imaging crystal spectrometers.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81 (10), (2010).</li><li>Eikenberry, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PILATUS:+a+two-dimensional+X-ray+detector+for+macromolecular+crystallography.">PILATUS: a two-dimensional X-ray detector for macromolecular crystallography.</a> Nucl. Instr. Meth. Phys. Res. A. 501 (1), 260-266 (2003).</li><li>Howard, N. T., Greenwald, M., Rice, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+impurity+confinement+on+Alcator+C-Mod+using+a+multi-pulse+laser+blow-off+system.">Characterization of impurity confinement on Alcator C-Mod using a multi-pulse laser blow-off system.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 82 (3), 1-6 (2011).</li><li>Rice, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-local+heat+transport,+rotation+reversals+and+up/down+impurity+density+asymmetries+in+Alcator+C-Mod+ohmic+L-mode+plasmas.">Non-local heat transport, rotation reversals and up/down impurity density asymmetries in Alcator C-Mod ohmic L-mode plasmas.</a> Nucl. Fusion. 53, 033004 (2013).</li><li>Reinke, M. L., Podpaly, Y., Gao, C., Science, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Operation and Validation of The HIREXSR Analysis COde MIT-Plasma Science and Fusion Center Alcator C-Mod. , (2013).</li><li>Rosen, A. S., Reinke, M. L., Rice, J. E., Hubbard, A. E., Hughes, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Validation+of+x-ray+line+ratios+for+electron+temperature+determination+in+tokamak+plasmas.">Validation of x-ray line ratios for electron temperature determination in tokamak plasmas.</a> J. Phys. B. 47 (10), 105701 (2014).</li><li>Delgado-Aparicio, L. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In-situ+wavelength+calibration+and+temperature+control+for+the+C-Mod+high-resolution+X-ray+crystal+imaging+spectrometer.">In-situ wavelength calibration and temperature control for the C-Mod high-resolution X-ray crystal imaging spectrometer.</a> Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 55, (2010).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Die Daten, die durch diese Technik erzeugt wird, kann in einer breiten Vielzahl von experimentellen Untersuchungen verwendet werden. Ion Temperatur und toroidale Geschwindigkeitsprofile können in einer breiten Palette von Transportstudien verwendet werden, einschließlich Eigenselbsterzeugten Plasmarotation und nicht-lokale perturbative Effekte. Messspektren von injizierten Verunreinigungen durch Laser Abblasen kann auch wichtige Informationen über den Transport von Verunreinigungen im Plasma zur Verfügung stellen, w...

Röntgenspektren eine Fülle von Informationen über Hochtemperaturplasmen bereitzustellen; zum Beispiel Elektronentemperatur und Dichte kann aus der Leitung Intensitätsverhältnisse abgeleitet werden. Durch die Verwendung eines Spektrometers Johann Betrachtung des Plasmas außeraxialen ist es möglich , Profile der Plasmaparameter zu konstruieren , wie Dichte, Temperatur und Geschwindigkeit innerhalb des Plasmas mit hoher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösung 1,2. Dieses Manuskript stellt den Betrieb des hochauflösenden Röntgenkristall Imaging Spectrometer mit Räumliche Auflösung (HIREXSR), eine hohe Wellenlängenauflösung räumlich Röntgenspektrometer Bildgebung verwendet Wasserstoff- und Helium-ähnliche Ionen mittlerer Ordnungszahl Elemente in einem Tokamak zu sehen Plasma. HIREXSR auf Alcator C-Mod im Einsatz, ein Tokamak-Fusionsgerät mit einem größeren und kleineren Radius von 0,67 m und 0,22 m jeweils. Es arbeitet typischerweise mit Deuterium Plasmen ~ 2 sec mit durchschnittlichen Dichten zwischen 0,2 bis 8,0 x 10 20 m dauerhafte -3 </sup&gt; und zentrale Elektronentemperaturen zwischen 1-9 keV 3. Unter diesen Bedingungen werden mit mittlerer bis hoher Z Störelemente hoch ionisiert und im Röntgenbereich strahlen, die Maßnahmen HIREXSR. Benchmarking Atom Code Modellierung von Röntgenspektren von gut diagnostiziert Laborplasmen erhalten ist wichtig , den Einsatz solcher Spektren zu rechtfertigen Plasmaparameter zu bestimmen , wann eine andere unabhängige Diagnose 4 nicht verfügbar sind. Jedes Spektrometer ist für seine gewünschte Verwendung gebaut. Dementsprechend ist eine allgemeine Beschreibung über die Maschine und die damit verbundenen Konzepte notwendig , um voll und ganz diese leistungsstarken Tools 5 verstehen. Bragg - Reflexion tritt auf, wenn ein Photon benachbarten Schichten eines Kristalls reflektiert wird und eine Strecke , die ein Vielfaches der Wellenlänge ist. Figur 1 veranschaulicht dieses Phänomen. Dieser Zustand wird durch die Gleichung n &amp; lgr; = 2 d sin θ b ausgedrückt, wobei n die Reihenfolge der Wieder istflection, λ die Wellenlänge des Photons ist, d der Abstand zwischen benachbarten Schichten des Kristalls und θ b der Braggsche Winkel ist . Eins - zu - Eins - Entsprechung zwischen λ und θ b zeigt an, dass alle Photonen an einem bestimmten Punkt der Detektorebene Reise mit der gleichen Wellenlänge. jedoch Absorptions- und Präzision Einschränkungen manifest als Abweichung vom Bragg-Winkel in der Praxis. Dadurch ergibt sich nur ein kleiner Bereich von Winkeln , die erhebliche konstruktive Interferenz erzeugen, durch eine Rocking - Kurve 6 dargestellt. Figur 2 ist ein Beispiel für eine Kurve Calcit - Kristall. HIREXSR ist ein Johann - Spektrometer mit einer sphärisch gebogenen Kristall 7. Vor der Beschreibung dieser Art von Gerät, eine Diskussion über eine einfachere, Kreis Spektrometer geeignet ist. Diese Einrichtung besteht aus einem gebogenen Kristall, der einfallenden Photonen reflektiert an ihren jeweiligen Bragg-Winkeln zuwehrt eine Reihe von einzelnen Röntgenphotonenzählung Pixeldetektoren. Der Kristall und dem Detektor liegen tangential zu dem Rowland - Kreis, wie in Figur 3 dargestellt. Der Durchmesser des Rowland - Kreises zu dem Krümmungsradius des Kristalls entspricht. Alle Strahlen, die von einem gegebenen Punkt auf dem Umfang auf einen beliebigen Punkt auf dem Kristall haben denselben Einfallswinkel in bezug auf den Kristall selbst. . Im Falle von HIREXSR eine sphärisch gebogene Kristall ermöglicht räumliche Auflösung in der meridionalen Ebene, dargestellt in Abbildung 4 der meridionalen Fokus f m definiert ist als: f m = R c sin θ b, wobei R c ist der Krümmungsradius Kristall. Die sagittale Brennpunkt f s ist definiert als: f s = - f m / cos 2 θ b. Die räumliche Auflösung des Spektrometers Δ x gegeben istdurch: <img alt="Gleichung" src="/files/ftp_upload/54408/54408eq_DELTA_x.jpg" /> , Wobei L cp ist der Abstand zwischen dem Kristall und dem Plasma, und d ist die Höhe des Kristalls. Weil die 2-dimensionalen Abstand der Kristallschichten diskret ist, muss dies berücksichtigt werden, wenn ein Material der Wahl. Da die Detektorflächen planar sind, können sie nur an einem Punkt tangential zu dem Rowland-Kreis sein, was folglich Anlass zu Fehler gibt, da die erfassten Strahlen nicht genau auf die entsprechenden Punkte auf dem Rowland-Kreis landen. Physikalisch manifestiert diese Fehlausrichtung als &quot;Verschmieren&quot; von Photonen spezifischer Energie auf den Detektor. Dieser Johann Fehler ist definiert als <img alt="Gleichung" src="/files/ftp_upload/54408/54408eq_delta_xj.jpg" /> , Wobei L die Breite des Kristalls. Wenn der Detektor Pixelbreite &amp; Delta; x p viel größer als der Johann Fehler, so wird die spektrale Auflösung ist unabhängig davon. Wenn sie einere vergleichbarer Größe, so kann der Gesamtfehler durch angenähert werden <img alt="Gleichung" src="/files/ftp_upload/54408/54408eq_delta_x_2.jpg" /> . Das Auflösungsvermögen des Kristallspektrometers ist gegeben durch: <img alt="Gleichung" src="/files/ftp_upload/54408/54408eq_lambda0.jpg" /> , woher <img alt="Gleichung" src="/files/ftp_upload/54408/54408eq_delta_theta.jpg" /> . Anstelle des Detektors Tangente an einem Punkt auf dem Rowland - Kreis jedoch Platzierung in HIREXSR der Detektor abgewinkelt ist leicht für die spektrale Entfernungsgenauigkeit zu opfern, wie es in 5 gezeigt ist . Diese Fehleranalyse experimentell verifiziert wurde und entspricht der Erwartung 8. Es gibt zwei entscheidende Parameter zu berücksichtigen, wenn eine Johann-Spektrometer zu entwerfen. Zuerst bestimmt der Abbildungsbereich, was das Spektrometer beobachtet wird. Zur Untersuchung Plasmen, ist es sehr wünschenswert, den gesamten Querschnitt, um zwischen Linienverschiebungen verursacht durch poloidale und Toroi zu unterscheiden anzuzeigendal Rotation. HIREXSR so angebracht ist, dass es das gesamte Plasma anzeigen kann, und geneigt ist leicht außeraxialen von ~ 8 ° (dargestellt in 6) für genaue Messungen Toroid zu ermöglichen. Zweitens regelt Zeitauflösung die minimale Zeit zwischen den Ereignissen, die das Spektrometer aufzeichnen kann. Für Alcator C-Mod, wünschenswerte Werte unterhalb von 20 msec, kürzer ist als die Energie und die Partikeleinschlusszeiten. Die Röntgen Zählpixel Detektoren , die HIREXSR verwendet eine Zeitauflösung von 6 bis 20 ms oder größer 9 unterstützen können. In Tabelle 1 sind alle Modulspezifikationen. Für perturbative Plasma - Studien wird der Laser blow-off - System auf Alcator C-Mod verwendet , um mehrere Ablationen mit präzisem Timing 10 liefern. Der Laser ist ein Nd: YAG (Neodym-dotierter Yttrium-Aluminium-Granat), der bei bis zu 10 Hz. Der Laser trifft auf einem ferngesteuerten optischen Zug , wie in 7 gezeigt , die konzentriert und Stierender Strahl an die gewünschte Stelle auf der Folie. Spotgrößen des Lasers müssen gesteuert werden, damit die Injektion nicht das Plasma zu stören. Eine lange Brennweite (1.146 mm) Sammellinse entlang der optischen Achse über einen ferngesteuerten Lineartisch übersetzt abgetragenen Punktgrößen zu ermöglichen, von ~ 0,5 bis 7 mm variieren. Schnelle Strahllenkung wird über einen 2D-piezoelektrischen Spiegel erreicht. Dieses piezoelektrische System ist mit einem RS232 angetriebenen Spiegel montiert-Befestigung. Neben dem Nd: YAG-Laser, ein 633 nm-Diodenlaser verwendet, um den Standort der Haupt (Infrarot) Strahl anzuzeigen. Die Strahlen werden gebildet durch den ersten Spiegel zu kollinear.

<table><tbody><tr><td>PILATUS 100k Detector System</td><td>DECTRIS</td><td>100k</td><td>Superseded by newer PILATUS3 detectors</td></tr><tr><td>Bragg Crystals</td><td>Kurchaov Institute</td><td>Custom Part</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CaF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Slides</td><td>LeBow</td><td>Custom Part</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>High Purity Argon</td><td>Airgas</td><td>AR HP300</td><td>Any high purity argon should work</td></tr><tr><td>Be window</td><td>Brush Wellman Electrofusion Products / Motion Hightech</td><td>Custom part</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

applying x-ray imaging crystal spectroscopy for use as a high temperature plasma diagnostic

Röntgenspektren eine Fülle von Informationen über Hochtemperaturplasmen bereitzustellen; zum Beispiel Elektronentemperatur und Dichte kann aus der Leitung Intensitätsverhältnisse abgeleitet werden. Durch die Verwendung des Plasma eines Spektrometers Johann Betrachtung ist es möglich, Profile der Plasmaparameter zu konstruieren, wie Dichte, der Temperatur und der Geschwindigkeit, mit guten räumlichen und zeitlichen Auflösung. Allerdings ist das Benchmarking Atom Code Modellierung von Röntgenspektren von gut diagnostiziert Laborplasmen erhalten wichtige Verwendung solcher Spektren zu rechtfertigen Plasmaparameter zu bestimmen, wann eine andere unabhängige Diagnose nicht verfügbar sind. Dieses Manuskript stellt den Betrieb des hochauflösenden Röntgenkristall Imaging Spectrometer mit Räumliche Auflösung (HIREXSR), eine hohe Wellenlängenauflösung räumlich Röntgenspektrometer Bildgebung verwendet Wasserstoff- und Helium-ähnliche Ionen mittlerer Ordnungszahl Elemente in einem Tokamak zu sehen Plasma. Darüber hinaus umfasst das Manuskript einen Laser Abblassystem, die solche Ionen einführenan das Plasma mit präzisem Timing für störungstheoretische Studien von Transport im Plasma zu ermöglichen.

Eine repräsentative Datenprobe aus dem Pixeldetektor für einen Zeit bin für das He-Spektrum wie Argon in 17 gezeigt ist. Die Spektrallinien, gebogen in eine elliptische Form , die durch den kugelförmigen Kristall, sind deutlich sichtbar. Der obere Detektor hat eine gebrochene Detektor-Panel, und es gibt einige tote Pixel über alle Detektoren verstreut. Die Daten aus dem zerbrochenen Detektor-Panel sollte ignoriert werden. Scheiben von dem Detektor die gemessenen Spe...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Applying X-ray Imaging Crystal Spectroscopy for Use as a High Temperature Plasma Diagnostic at JoVE.com

Applying X-ray Imaging Crystal Spectroscopy for Use as a High Temperature Plasma Diagnostic

Röntgenspektren bieten eine Fülle von Informationen über Hochtemperaturplasmen. Diese Handschrift stellt den Betrieb einer hohen Wellenlängenauflösung räumlich Röntgenspektrometer Bildgebung verwendet wasserstoff- und Helium artigen Ionen mittlerer Ordnungszahl Elemente in einem Tokamak Plasma anzuzeigen.

Anwenden von Röntgen Imaging Kristall Spektroskopie für den Einsatz als Hochtemperatur-Plasmadiagnose

X-ray spectra provide a wealth of information on high temperature plasmas; for example electron temperature and density can be inferred from line ...

applying-x-ray-imaging-crystal-spectroscopy-for-use-as-high

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

11.3K Aufrufe.  Massachusetts Institute of Technology.  Röntgenspektren bieten eine Fülle von Informationen über Hochtemperaturplasmen. Diese Handschrift stellt den Betrieb einer hohen Wellenlängenauflösung räumlich Röntgenspektrometer Bildgebung verwendet wasserstoff- und Helium artigen Ionen mittlerer Ordnungszahl Elemente in einem Tokamak Plasma anzuzeigen. 

Serie: Applying X-ray Imaging Crystal Spectroscopy for Use as a High Temperature Plasma Diagnostic

Investigation of Early Plasma Evolution Induced by Ultrashort Laser Pulses

Early plasma is generated owing to high intensity laser irradiation of target and the subsequent target material ionization. Its dynamics plays a significant role in laser-material interaction, especially in the air environment1-11.
Early plasma evolution has been captured through pump-probe shadowgraphy1-3 and interferometry1,4-7. However, the studied time frames and applied laser parameter ranges are limited. For example, direct examinations of plasma front locations and electron number densities within a delay time of 100 picosecond (ps) with respect to the laser pulse peak are still very few, especially for the ultrashort pulse of a duration around 100 femtosecond (fs) and a low power density around 1014 W/cm2. Early plasma generated under these conditions has only been captured recently with high temporal and spatial resolutions12. The detailed setup strategy and procedures of this high precision measurement will be illustrated in this paper. The rationale of the measurement is optical pump-probe shadowgraphy: one ultrashort laser pulse is split to a pump pulse and a probe pulse, while the delay time between them can be adjusted by changing their beam path lengths. The pump pulse ablates the target and generates the early plasma, and the probe pulse propagates through the plasma region and detects the non-uniformity of electron number density. In addition, animations are generated using the calculated results from the simulation model of Ref. 12 to illustrate the plasma formation and evolution with a very high resolution (0.04 ~ 1 ps).
Both the experimental method and the simulation method can be applied to a broad range of time frames and laser parameters. These methods can be used to examine the early plasma generated not only from metals, but also from semiconductors and insulators.

An experimental method to examine the early plasma evolution induced by ultrashort laser pulses is described. Using this method, high quality images of early plasma are obtained with high temporal and spatial resolutions. A novel integrated atomistic model is used to simulate and explain the mechanisms of early plasma.

Untersuchung der frühen Evolution von Plasma ultrakurzer Laserpulse

Early plasma is generated owing to high intensity laser irradiation of target and the subsequent target material ionization. Its dynamics plays a ...

Forschung

Ingenieurwesen

Angle-resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy At Ultra-low Temperatures

The physical properties of a material are defined by its electronic structure. Electrons in solids are characterized by energy (&omega;) and momentum (k) and the probability to find them in a particular state with given &omega; and k is described by the spectral function A(k, &omega;). This function can be directly measured in an experiment based on the well-known photoelectric effect, for the explanation of which Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize back in 1921. In the photoelectric effect the light shone on a surface ejects electrons from the material. According to Einstein, energy conservation allows one to determine the energy of an electron inside the sample, provided the energy of the light photon and kinetic energy of the outgoing photoelectron are known. Momentum conservation makes it also possible to estimate k relating it to the momentum of the photoelectron by measuring the angle at which the photoelectron left the surface. The modern version of this technique is called Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (ARPES) and exploits both conservation laws in order to determine the electronic structure, i.e. energy and momentum of electrons inside the solid. In order to resolve the details crucial for understanding the topical problems of condensed matter physics, three quantities need to be minimized: uncertainty* in photon energy, uncertainty in kinetic energy of photoelectrons and temperature of the sample.
In our approach we combine three recent achievements in the field of synchrotron radiation, surface science and cryogenics. We use synchrotron radiation with tunable photon energy contributing an uncertainty of the order of 1 meV, an electron energy analyzer which detects the kinetic energies with a precision of the order of 1 meV and a He3 cryostat which allows us to keep the temperature of the sample below 1 K. We discuss the exemplary results obtained on single crystals of Sr2RuO4 and some other materials. The electronic structure of this material can be determined with an unprecedented clarity.

The overall goal of this method is to determine the low-energy electronic structure of solids at ultra-low temperatures using Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy with synchrotron radiation.

Angle-Photoemissionsspektroskopie Bei extrem niedrigen Temperaturen

The physical properties of a material are defined by its  electronic structure. Electrons in solids are characterized by energy (&omega;)  and momentum ...

Synthesis and Microdiffraction at Extreme Pressures and Temperatures

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary interiors, design materials with novel properties, understand the mechanical behavior of materials exposed to very high stresses as in explosions or impacts. Synthesis and structural analysis of materials at extreme conditions of pressure and temperature entails remarkable technical challenges. In the laser heated diamond anvil cell (LH-DAC), very high pressure is generated between the tips of two opposing diamond anvils forced against each other; focused infrared laser beams, shined through the diamonds, allow to reach very high temperatures on samples absorbing the laser radiation. When the LH-DAC is installed in a synchrotron beamline that provides extremely brilliant x-ray radiation, the structure of materials under extreme conditions can be probed in situ. LH-DAC samples, although very small, can show highly variable grain size, phase and chemical composition. In order to obtain the high resolution structural analysis and the most comprehensive characterization of a sample, we collect diffraction data in 2D grids and combine powder, single crystal and multigrain diffraction techniques. Representative results obtained in the synthesis of a new iron oxide, Fe4O5 1 will be shown.

The laser heated diamond anvil cell combined with synchrotron micro-diffraction techniques allows researchers to explore the nature and properties of new phases of matter at extreme pressure and temperature (PT) conditions. Heterogeneous samples can be characterized in situ under high pressure by 2D mapping and combined powder, single-crystal and multigrain diffraction approaches.

Synthese und Mikrodiffraktion bei extremen Drücken und Temperaturen

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary ...

How to Ignite an Atmospheric Pressure Microwave Plasma Torch without Any Additional Igniters

This movie shows how an atmospheric pressure plasma torch can be ignited by microwave power with no additional igniters. After ignition of the plasma, a stable and continuous operation of the plasma is possible and the plasma torch can be used for many different applications. On one hand, the hot (3,600 K gas temperature) plasma can be used for chemical processes and on the other hand the cold afterglow (temperatures down to almost RT) can be applied for surface processes. For example chemical syntheses are interesting volume processes. Here the microwave plasma torch can be used for the decomposition of waste gases which are harmful and contribute to the global warming but are needed as etching gases in growing industry sectors like the semiconductor branch. Another application is the dissociation of CO2. Surplus electrical energy from renewable energy sources can be used to dissociate CO2 to CO and O2. The CO can be further processed to gaseous or liquid higher hydrocarbons thereby providing chemical storage of the energy, synthetic fuels or platform chemicals for the chemical industry. Applications of the afterglow of the plasma torch are the treatment of surfaces to increase the adhesion of lacquer, glue or paint, and the sterilization or decontamination of different kind of surfaces. The movie will explain how to ignite the plasma solely by microwave power without any additional igniters, e.g., electric sparks. The microwave plasma torch is based on a combination of two resonators &#8212; a coaxial one which provides the ignition of the plasma and a cylindrical one which guarantees a continuous and stable operation of the plasma after ignition. The plasma can be operated in a long microwave transparent tube for volume processes or shaped by orifices for surface treatment purposes.

This movie shows how an atmospheric plasma torch can be ignited by microwaves with no additional igniters and provides a stable and continuous plasma operation suitable for plenty of applications.

Wie man eine Atmosphärischer Druck Mikrowellenplasmabrenner zünden ohne zusätzliche Zünder

This movie shows how an atmospheric pressure plasma torch can be ignited by microwave power with no additional igniters. After ignition of the plasma, a ...

Emission Spectroscopic Boundary Layer Investigation during Ablative Material Testing in Plasmatron

Ablative Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) allowed the first humans to safely return to Earth from the moon and are still considered as the only solution for future high-speed reentry missions. But despite the advancements made since Apollo, heat flux prediction remains an imperfect science and engineers resort to safety factors to determine the TPS thickness. This goes at the expense of embarked payload, hampering, for example, sample return missions. 
Ground testing in plasma wind-tunnels is currently the only affordable possibility for both material qualification and validation of material response codes. The subsonic 1.2MW Inductively Coupled Plasmatron facility at the von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics is able to reproduce a wide range of reentry environments. This protocol describes a procedure for the study of the gas/surface interaction on ablative materials in high enthalpy flows and presents sample results of a non-pyrolyzing, ablating carbon fiber precursor. With this publication, the authors envisage the definition of a standard procedure, facilitating comparison with other laboratories and contributing to ongoing efforts to improve heat shield reliability and reduce design uncertainties.
The described core techniques are non-intrusive methods to track the material recession with a high-speed camera along with the chemistry in the reactive boundary layer, probed by emission spectroscopy. Although optical emission spectroscopy is limited to line-of-sight measurements and is further constrained to electronically excited atoms and molecules, its simplicity and broad applicability still make it the technique of choice for analysis of the reactive boundary layer. Recession of the ablating sample further requires that the distance of the measurement location with respect to the surface is known at all times during the experiment. Calibration of the optical system of the applied three spectrometers allowed quantitative comparison. At the fiber scale, results from a post-test microscopy analysis are presented.

Development of new ablative materials and their numerical modeling requires extensive experimental investigation. This protocol describes procedures for material response characterization in plasma flows with the core techniques being non-intrusive methods to track the material recession along with the chemistry in the reactive boundary layer by emission spectroscopy.

Emissionsspektroskopische Grenzschichtuntersuchung während ablative Materialprüfung in Plasmatron

Ablative Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) allowed the first humans to safely return to Earth from the moon and are still considered as the only solution ...

High-resolution Thermal Micro-imaging Using Europium Chelate Luminescent Coatings

Micro-electronic devices often undergo significant self-heating when biased to their typical operating conditions. This paper describes a convenient optical micro-imaging technique which can be used to map and quantify such behavior. Europium thenoyltrifluoroacetonate (EuTFC) has a 612 nm luminescence line whose activation efficiency drops strongly with increasing temperature, due to T-dependent interactions between the Eu3+ ion and the organic chelating compound. This material may be readily coated on to a sample surface by thermal sublimation in vacuum. When the coating is excited with ultraviolet light (337 nm) an optical micro-image of the 612 nm luminescent response can be converted directly into a map of the sample surface temperature. This technique offers spatial resolution limited only by the microscope optics (about 1 micron) and time resolution limited by the speed of the camera employed. It offers the additional advantages of only requiring comparatively simple and non-specialized equipment, and giving a quantitative probe of sample temperature.

Europium thenoyltrifluoroacetonate (EuTFC) has an optical luminescence line at 612 nm, whose activation efficiency decreases strongly with temperature. If a sample coated with a thin film of this material is micro-imaged, the 612 nm luminescent response intensity may be converted into a direct map of sample surface temperature.

Hochauflösende Thermal Micro-Bildgebung Europiumchelatlösung Lumineszente Coatings

Micro-electronic devices often undergo significant self-heating when biased to their typical operating conditions. This paper describes a convenient ...

High Pressure Single Crystal Diffraction at PX^2

In this report we describe detailed procedures for carrying out single crystal X-ray diffraction experiments with a diamond anvil cell (DAC) at the GSECARS 13-BM-C beamline at the Advanced Photon Source. The DAC program at 13-BM-C is part of the Partnership for Extreme Xtallography (PX^2) project. BX-90 type DACs with conical-type diamond anvils and backing plates are recommended for these experiments. The sample chamber should be loaded with noble gas to maintain a hydrostatic pressure environment. The sample is aligned to the rotation center of the diffraction goniometer. The MARCCD area detector is calibrated with a powder diffraction pattern from LaB6. The sample diffraction peaks are analyzed with the ATREX software program, and are then indexed with the RSV software program. RSV is used to refine the UB matrix of the single crystal, and with this information and the peak prediction function, more diffraction peaks can be located. Representative single crystal diffraction data from an omphacite (Ca0.51Na0.48)(Mg0.44Al0.44Fe2+0.14Fe3+0.02)Si2O6 sample were collected. Analysis of the data gave a monoclinic lattice with P2/n space group at 0.35 GPa, and the lattice parameters were found to be: a = 9.496 &#177;0.006 &#197;, b = 8.761 &#177;0.004 &#197;, c = 5.248 &#177;0.001 &#197;, &#946; = 105.06 &#177;0.03&#186;, &#945; = &#947; = 90&#186;.

In this report, we describe detailed procedures for carrying out single crystal X-ray diffraction experiments with a diamond anvil cell at the GSECARS 13-BM-C beamline at the Advanced Photon Source. ATREX and RSV programs are used to analyze the data.

High Pressure Einkristalldiffraktometrie bei PX ^ 2

In this report we describe detailed procedures for carrying out single crystal X-ray diffraction experiments with a diamond anvil cell (DAC) at the ...

Chemie

Non-equilibrium Microwave Plasma for Efficient High Temperature Chemistry

A flowing microwave plasma based methodology for converting electric energy into internal and/or translational modes of stable molecules with the purpose of efficiently driving non-equilibrium chemistry is discussed. The advantage of a flowing plasma reactor is that continuous chemical processes can be driven with the flexibility of startup times in the seconds timescale. The plasma approach is generically suitable for conversion/activation of stable molecules such as CO2, N2 and CH4. Here the reduction of CO2 to CO is used as a model system: the complementary diagnostics illustrate how a baseline thermodynamic equilibrium conversion can be exceeded by the intrinsic non-equilibrium from high vibrational excitation. Laser (Rayleigh) scattering is used to measure the reactor temperature and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to characterize in situ internal (vibrational) excitation as well as the effluent composition to monitor conversion and selectivity.

This article describes a flowing microwave reactor that is used to drive efficient non-equilibrium chemistry for the application of conversion/activation of stable molecules such as CO2, N2 and CH4. The goal of the procedure described here is to measure the in situ gas temperature and gas conversion.

Nicht-Gleichgewicht Microwave Plasma für effiziente Hochtemperatur-Chemie

A flowing microwave plasma based methodology for converting electric energy into internal and/or translational modes of stable molecules with the purpose ...

An Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Setup to Investigate the Reactive Species Formation

Non-thermal atmospheric pressure (&#39;cold&#39;) plasmas have received increased attention in recent years due to their significant biomedical potential. The reactions of cold plasma with the surrounding atmosphere yield a variety of reactive species, which can define its effectiveness. While efficient development of cold plasma therapy requires kinetic models, model benchmarking needs empirical data. Experimental studies of the source of reactive species detected in aqueous solutions exposed to plasma are still scarce. Biomedical plasma is often operated with He or Ar feed gas, and a specific interest lies in investigation of the reactive species generated by plasma with various gas admixtures (O2, N2, air, H2O vapor, etc.) Such investigations are very complex due to difficulties in controlling the ambient atmosphere in contact with the plasma effluent. In this work, we addressed common issues of &#39;high&#39; voltage kHz frequency driven plasma jet experimental studies. A reactor was developed allowing the exclusion of ambient atmosphere from the plasma-liquid system. The system thus comprised the feed gas with admixtures and the components of the liquid sample. This controlled atmosphere allowed the investigation of the source of the reactive oxygen species induced in aqueous solutions by He-water vapor plasma. The use of isotopically labelled water allowed distinguishing between the species originating in the gas phase and those formed in the liquid. The plasma equipment was contained inside a Faraday cage to eliminate possible influence of any external field. The setup is versatile and can aid in further understanding the cold plasma-liquid interactions chemistry.

An experimental setup was created for the helium-operated kHz frequency plasma jet. The setup includes a cage for the plasma power supply and jet and an in-house built reactor to monitor plasma-induced reactive species without the interference of the ambient atmosphere.

Ein Atmosphärendruck-Plasma-Setup die reaktive Spezies Formation zur Untersuchung

Non-thermal atmospheric pressure (&#39;cold&#39;) plasmas have received increased attention in recent years due to their significant biomedical potential. ...

Spark Plasma Sintering Apparatus Used for the Formation of Strontium Titanate Bicrystals

A spark plasma sintering apparatus was used as a novel method for diffusion bonding of two single crystals of strontium titanate to form bicrystals with one twist grain boundary. This apparatus utilizes high uniaxial pressure and a pulsed direct current for rapid consolidation of material. Diffusion bonding of strontium titanate bicrystals without fracture, in a spark plasma sintering apparatus, is possible at high pressures due to the unusual temperature dependent plasticity behavior of strontium titanate. We demonstrate a method for the successful formation of bicrystals at accelerated time scales and lower temperatures in a spark plasma sintering apparatus compared to bicrystals formed by conventional diffusion bonding parameters. Bond quality was verified by scanning electron microscopy. A clean and atomically abrupt interface containing no secondary phases was observed using transmission electron microscopy techniques. Local changes in bonding across the boundary was characterized by simultaneous scanning transmission electron microscopy and spatially resolved electron energy-loss spectroscopy.

A viable technique for the formation of strontium titanate bicrystals at high pressure and fast heating rate via the spark plasma sintering apparatus is developed.

Spark Plasma Sintering Gerät verwendet für die Bildung von Strontiumtitanat Bikristalle

A spark plasma sintering apparatus was used as a novel method for diffusion bonding of two single crystals of strontium titanate to form bicrystals with ...