这项工作得到了美国陆军研究办公室的 W911NF-14-1-0241 和 W911NF-17-1-0119 奖的支持。DMB 是由美国能源部科学办公室, 基础能源科学办公室在奖编号 DE-FC02-04ER1553。

1. 搭建实验装置
注: 要运行这个实验, 组装一个由等离子体反应器组成的系统, 其中的反应将发生, 光学元件的吸光度测量, 和电子锁定放大系统处理信号。
<ol><li>
构造等离子体电化学电池。
	<ol>
<li>制造一个由透明的玻璃容器组成的反应器单元, 直径50.8 毫米 (2), 两个光学窗口的角度近似°从正常平面向下。</li>
		<li>构造一个含有四孔的非渗透性盖子, 用于介绍等离子电极、铂阳极和用氩 (Ar) 冲洗磁头间隙的小软管。 注意:第四孔将允许 Ar 从头部空间排出。</li>
		<li>通过将一块铂箔贴在不锈钢棒上形成阳极。</li>
		<li>形成阴极通过锐化1.58 毫米 (1/16) 外径的末端, 0.178 毫米 (0.007) 内径不锈钢毛细管。使用适当的接头将 Ar 软管连接到毛细管的钝端。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>
构造光学测量装置。
	<ol>
<li>构造一个由 670 nm 二极管激光器、可调虹膜和 50 mm 镜头组成的激光光源, 它们都安装在 30 mm 的光笼系统中。将笼装入测, 使整个系统可在19角度旋转, 并将激光定向到电化学电池的一个光学窗口中。 注意:也可以使用其他激光波长, 请参见 Ref 16.</li>
		<li>构造一个由大面积光电二极管连接成反向偏置泄漏电路的光电探测器。将光电探测器安装在测上, 以便它可以通过与激光源相反的电化学电池的光学窗口接收反射光。此外, 安装到探测器的一个带通滤波器对应的激光波长。 注意:在图 1中可以看到光电探测器电路的示意图。对于这样的电路, 输出电压与激光强度成正比。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>
构造了等离子体开关电路和锁入放大电路。 注:电子元器件包括高压电源、高压开关电路、功能发生器、电压表和锁定放大器。<ol>
<li>连接高压电源, 使其可以在等离子电极和阳极之间施加大约-2.5 伏的直流 (DC) 偏置, 以产生等离子体。</li>
		<li>使用定制的开关电路, 以20赫的载波频率来调制高值和低数值之间的等离子体电流。 注意:电路示意图如图 2所示。高压电源驱动电流通过两个平行连接的镇流器电阻器。当小电流连续流经3ω电阻时, 通过绝缘栅双极结晶体管 (IGBT) 连续切换电流通过220ω。该函数发生器产生20赫驱动频率, 并通过光隔离器连接到 IGBT, 它将高压电源与功能发生器隔离开来。</li>
		<li>集成锁定放大器, 使光电探测器的输出与之连接。 注意:锁在放大器将过滤噪声在20赫波段外面。它的输出, 即吸光度信号的振幅和相位, 应由计算机记录。一个内部程序被用来记录输出。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>2. 准备次氯酸4溶液作为导电的背景电解质
<ol><li>要准备一个0.163 米次氯酸4解决方案, 这是本实验中使用的浓度, 溶解10克的次氯酸4 500 毫升的去离子水。注意:次氯酸4被选为电解质, 因为它不与溶剂电子发生反应。0.163 m 的集中是仅代表性的, 并且不同的集中可以使用, 典型地在命令 0.001-0. 1 m。</li>
	<li>将60毫升的次氯酸4倒入等离子体反应器。</li>
</ol>3. 准备测量的设置
<ol><li>
准备电化学电池设置和清除反应器。
	<ol>
<li>将阳极通过适当的孔插入非渗透性的盖子。部分淹没在溶液表面下的阳极。</li>
		<li>将等离子电极 (阴极毛细管) 连接到与 Ar 罐连接的质量流量计上, 并通过盖子插入毛细管。悬浮在溶液表面上方大约1-2 毫米的毛细管尖端。使用摄像机测量毛细管和液体表面之间的距离。</li>
		<li>将小软管连接到与 Ar 罐相连的质量流量计, 并将软管插入盖子中的一个孔中;这形成清除线。</li>
		<li>与阴极, 阳极, 和 Ar 清除线到位, 确保非渗透性的盖子的顶部的反应堆细胞。</li>
		<li>通过清除线上的 Ar 流到大约 250 cm3/分钟, 至少5分钟, 从等离子反应器的顶部排出空气。 注意:反应器的流量和流动时间取决于反应器的容积和溶液的体积;这里使用的值是有代表性的。不冲洗空气会导致溶液中溶解氧驱动的副反应 (见 Ref. 21)。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>
对齐测量。
	<ol>
<li>通过等离子电极将氩气的流量设置为大约10厘米3/分钟, 使反应堆的激光命中等离子-液体界面。这样做是通过观察光被氩气的流动驱散了酒窝。</li>
		<li>关闭氩气到等离子体电极的流动, 等待激光光斑回到其正常尺寸。一旦发生这种情况, 对齐光电探测器, 使激光击中检测器的中心。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>
测量基线信号强度并准备电气系统。
	<ol>
<li>将光电探测器输出连接到电压表, 并测量激光器所发出的电压。记录这个值, 因为它稍后将被用来规范测量的吸光度信号。 注意:此值与事件强度I0直接成正比。</li>
		<li>在测量入射强度后, 从光电探测器上拔下电缆并将其连接到锁定放大器的输入, 以在20赫载波频率处锁定信号。</li>
		<li>将函数发生器的晶体管-晶体管逻辑输出连接到锁定放大器的频率输入。</li>
		<li>确保打开了锁定放大器、功能发生器和高压电源。 注意:这项实验现在已经准备好开始了。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>4. 开始实验和数据收集
注意:内部程序用于数据收集。此外, 该系统是自动化的, 以确保精度和减少人为错误。以下步骤介绍了此自动化的底层过程。
<ol><li>打开激光, 开始测量吸光度。让噪音的时间被整合到一个足够低的水平。</li>
	<li>将高压电源设置为大约-2.5 伏的电压差, 以点燃等离子体。 注意:在图 3中显示了从液体表面的距离1毫米的等离子体放电的照片。</li>
	<li>等待约半分钟的振幅测量的锁定放大器达到一个稳定状态, 并在此之后, 记录信号约2分钟。</li>
	<li>关闭激光器, 等待激光信号到达稳定状态。随后, 测量半分钟的吸光度。 注意:这种测量将从以前的吸光度测量中减去, 以解释来自等离子体的噪声。</li>
	<li>关闭高压电源, 关掉等离子。</li>
	<li>要重复实验, 确保等离子电极仍然是对齐的。为此, 应收回至少1厘米的等离子电极, 然后通过毛细管打开 Ar 流。重复步骤3.2 到4.5。</li>
	<li>如果没有更多的实验将被重复, 关闭所有的电子仪器, 从电化学电池中脱下盖子, 并适当地处理次氯酸4 。</li>
</ol>5. 数据分析
注意:从锁定放大器的输出包含有关 20 kHz 吸光度信号的振幅R和相位ϕ的信息。这可以分别由余弦和正弦分量、 X和Y表示。由于锁定放大器测量在步骤1.3.2 中设置的高低电流之间信号的调制幅度, 所以X和Y表示这两个信号之间的差异, 并用于测量吸光度的差异在低和高状态之间, ΔI。
<ol><li>若要正确分析数据, 请通过将事件强度电压I0除以它们来规范化X和Y时间向量。 注意:这一电压, 这是在步骤3.3.1 测量, 是直接成正比的光学强度, 是信号组件X和Y。因此, 将X和Y除以该值应产生无量纲向量, 表示 20 kHz 吸收信号中的相和外相位分量。</li>
	<li>获取X/i0 和Y/i0 从当等离子体打开直到激光器关闭时的稳定状态。 注意:图 4显示了在整个实验中测量的归一化吸收 RMS 大小R 。血浆在三十年代以后被交换了, 吸光度信号在五十年代的时间到达了稳态, 并且血浆在150s 时被关闭了。</li>
	<li>同样, 从激光关闭直到等离子体被关闭以获得等离子体噪声的余弦和正弦分量的那一刻起, 获取X/i0 和Y/i0 的平均值。注意:在图 4中, 等离子体在150s 时被关闭, 噪声测量是从170s 到200s 的平均吸光度。</li>
	<li>为了获得吸收信号的余弦和正弦分量, 从5.2 中获得的平均值减去步骤5.3 中获得的平均值。</li>
	<li>要计算真正的吸光度, 请计算在步骤5.4 中获得的信号的 X 和 Y 分量的平方和, 如公式 1中所示。 <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/56833/56833eq1v5.jpg">(1)</li>
</ol>6. 参数提取
<ol><li>计算溶剂电子在溶液中的浓度, 假设溶剂电子被等离子体引入溶液的速率与它们被消耗的速率之间的稳态状态。 注意:在没有其他反应的情况下, 溶剂电子的消耗是通过电子的二阶复合来产生的, 如方程式 2所示。 <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/56833/56833eq2v7.jpg">(2)<ol>
<li>使用啤酒定律, 如方程式 3所示, 以确定溶剂电子的浓度为未知穿透深度的函数l, 其中ε是摩尔消光系数, θ是入射角 (在步骤中定义为 19)1.2)。 注意:溶剂电子的消光系数为 ~ 1.9万 L 摩尔-1 cm-1 , 如 Ref. 18 所述。 <img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/56833/56833eq3v5.jpg">(3)</li>
		<li>若要推断未知穿透深度, 请将公式 3与公式 4相结合, 这将假定电子以与等离子体的电流密度成正比的速率引入, 其中k是第二个的反应常数顺序重组, q是基本电荷, j是当前密度, NA是德罗的数字。 注意:公式 4中包含的系数为 2, 表示两个电子在公式 2中的反应被消耗。 <img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/56833/56833eq4v5.jpg">(4) 穿透长度l和浓度 [(e-)蒽醌] 可以通过使用公式3和 4测量的信号来确定。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>7. 反应速率估计
注意:当电子在溶液中化不电解质如次氯酸4时, 溶剂的电子只被在等式 2中的反应所消耗。然而, 溶剂电子有能力减少各种各样的阳离子, 阴离子和中性种类。当这些电子清道夫在水溶液中溶解时, 它们会与溶剂电子发生反应。这降低了它们的平衡浓度, 并导致检测到的吸光度降低, 这使得拉斯方法能够估计这些反应的反应速率常数。当一个新的反应被引入, 利率平衡成为: <img alt="Equation 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/56833/56833eq5v5.jpg">(5) 其中 [(S)蒽醌] 是溶液中电子清道夫的浓度, 而 k2是与其反应相关的反应速率常数。但是, 如果清除剂浓度足够大, 则可以将公式 5简化为: 
 <img alt="Equation 6" src="/files/ftp_upload/56833/56833eq6v5.jpg">(6) 公式 3可以与公式 6相结合, 以获得吸光度和清除剂浓度之间的关系。 <img alt="Equation 7" src="/files/ftp_upload/56833/56833eq7v5.jpg">(7)
<ol><li>要用电子清道夫来测量溶剂电子的反应速率常数, 从在步骤1中准备的次氯酸4溶液中溶解清除剂开始。 注意:该解决方案中的非反应次氯酸4确保了足够高的解决方案电导率以保证等离子体的稳定性。清除剂的浓度应该高到足以与二阶重组竞争, 否则, 反应就不会发生。</li>
	<li>重复步骤2.2 到6.1.2 不同的清除剂浓度, 并测量在步骤5.5 中计算的吸光度的差异, 关于纯次氯酸4解决方案。</li>
	<li>将吸光度的图形绘制为 [(S)蒽醌]-1的函数。 注意:如果清除剂浓度足够大,公式 6有效, 则将吸收率绘制为 [(S)蒽醌]-1的函数将产生一条直线, 其斜率取决于速率常数k2。</li>
	<li>从直线的斜率推断反应速率常数 k2 。 注意:有关其他详细信息, 以及如何将其应用于没有2-(蒽醌)的反应的示例, 没有3-(蒽醌)和 H2O2 (蒽醌), CO2 (蒽醌) 与溶剂电子, 参见 Ref. 1619。</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Smoluch, M., Mielczarek, P., Silberring, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma-based+ambient+ionization+mass+spectrometry+in+bioanalytical+sciences.">Plasma-based ambient ionization mass spectrometry in bioanalytical sciences.</a> Mass Spectrom. Rev. 35 (1), 22-34 (2015).</li><li>Jamroz, P., Greda, K., Pohl, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+direct-current,+atmospheric-pressure,+glow+discharges+generated+in+contact+with+flowing+electrolyte+solutions+for+elemental+analysis+by+optical+emission+spectrometry.">Development of direct-current, atmospheric-pressure, glow discharges generated in contact with flowing electrolyte solutions for elemental analysis by optical emission spectrometry.</a> Trends Anal. Chem. 41, 105-121 (2012).</li><li>Foster, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma-based+water+purification:+Challenges+and+prospects+for+the+future.">Plasma-based water purification: Challenges and prospects for the future.</a> Phys. Plasmas. 24, (2017).</li><li>Kong, M. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma+medicine:+an+introductory+review.">Plasma medicine: an introductory review.</a> New J. Phys. 11, (2009).</li><li>Chen, Q., Li, J., Li, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+plasma-liquid+interactions+for+nanomaterial+synthesis.">A review of plasma-liquid interactions for nanomaterial synthesis.</a> J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 48, (2015).</li><li>Mariotti, D., Patel, J., Svrcek, V., Maguire, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma-liquid+interactions+at+atmospheric+pressure+for+nanomaterials+synthesis+and+surface+engineering.">Plasma-liquid interactions at atmospheric pressure for nanomaterials synthesis and surface engineering.</a> Plasma Processes Polym. 9 (11-12), 1074-1085 (2012).</li><li>Bruggeman, P. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma-liquid+interactions:+a+review+and+roadmap.">Plasma-liquid interactions: a review and roadmap.</a> Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 25 (5), (2016).</li><li>Rumbach, P., Go, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perspectives+on+plasmas+in+contact+with+liquids+for+chemical+processing+and+materials+synthesis.">Perspectives on plasmas in contact with liquids for chemical processing and materials synthesis.</a> Top. Catal. , (2017).</li><li>Mozumder, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Fundamentals of Radiation Chemistry. , (1999).</li><li>Kai, T., Yokoya, A., Ukai, M., Fujii, K., Higuchi, M., Watanabe, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+of+low-energy+electrons+in+liquid+water+with+consideration+of+coulomb+interaction+with+positively+charged+water+molecules+induced+by+electron+collision.">Dynamics of low-energy electrons in liquid water with consideration of coulomb interaction with positively charged water molecules induced by electron collision.</a> Radiat. Phys. Chem. 102, 16-22 (2014).</li><li>Kai, T., Yokoya, A., Ukai, M., Fujii, K., Watanabe, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+equilibrium+and+prehydration+processes+of+electrons+injected+into+liquid+water+calculated+by+dynamic+Monte+Carlo+method.">Thermal equilibrium and prehydration processes of electrons injected into liquid water calculated by dynamic Monte Carlo method.</a> Radiat. Phys. Chem. 115, 1-5 (2015).</li><li>Hart, E. J., Anbar, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The hydrated electron. , (1970).</li><li>Hart, E. J., Boag, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Absorption+spectrum+of+the+hydrated+electron+in+water+and+in+aqueous+solutions.">Absorption spectrum of the hydrated electron in water and in aqueous solutions.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 84 (21), 4090-4095 (1962).</li><li>Boag, J. W., Hart, E. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Absorption+spectra+in+irradiated+water+and+some+solutions.">Absorption spectra in irradiated water and some solutions.</a> Nature. 197 (4862), 45-47 (1963).</li><li>Matheson, M. S., Mulac, W. A., Rabani, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+the+hydrated+electron+in+the+flash+photolysis+of+aqueous+solutions.">Formation of the hydrated electron in the flash photolysis of aqueous solutions.</a> J. Phys. Chem. 67 (12), 2613-2617 (1963).</li><li>Rumbach, P., Bartels, D. M., Sankaran, R. M., Go, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+solvation+of+electrons+by+an+atmospheric-pressure+plasma.">The solvation of electrons by an atmospheric-pressure plasma.</a> Nat. Commun. 6 (7248), (2015).</li><li>Anbar, M., Hart, E. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+solvent+and+of+solutes+on+the+absorption+spectrum+of+solvated+electrons.">The effect of solvent and of solutes on the absorption spectrum of solvated electrons.</a> J. Phys. Chem. 69 (4), 1244-1247 (1965).</li><li>Buxton, G. V., Greenstock, C. L., Helman, W. P., Ross, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Critical+review+of+rate+constants+for+reactions+of+hydrated+electrons,+hydrogen+atoms+and+hydroxyl+radicals+(&#183;OH/&#183;O-)+in+aqueous+solution.">Critical review of rate constants for reactions of hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals (&#183;OH/&#183;O-) in aqueous solution.</a> J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data. 17 (2), 513-886 (1988).</li><li>Rumbach, P., Xu, R., Go, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrochemical+production+of+oxalate+and+formate+from+CO2+by+solvated+electrons+produced+using+an+atmospheric-pressure+plasma.">Electrochemical production of oxalate and formate from CO2 by solvated electrons produced using an atmospheric-pressure plasma.</a> J. Electrochem. Soc. 163 (10), 1157-1161 (2016).</li><li>Rumbach, P., Bartels, D. M., Sankaran, R. M., Go, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+air+on+solvated+electron+chemistry+at+a+plasma/liquid+interface.">The effect of air on solvated electron chemistry at a plasma/liquid interface.</a> J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 48 (42), (2015).</li><li>Rumbach, P., Witzke, M., Sankaran, R. M., Go, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decoupling+interfacial+reactions+between+plasmas+and+liquids:+Charge+transfer+vs+plasma+neutral+reactions.">Decoupling interfacial reactions between plasmas and liquids: Charge transfer vs plasma neutral reactions.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 16264-16267 (2013).</li><li>Richmonds, C., Sankaran, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasma-liquid+electrochemistry:+Rapid+synthesis+of+colloidal+metal+nanoparticles+by+microplasma+reduction+of+aqueous+cations.">Plasma-liquid electrochemistry: Rapid synthesis of colloidal metal nanoparticles by microplasma reduction of aqueous cations.</a> Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, (2008).</li></ol>

作者没有什么可透露的。

结果表明, 在等离子体-液界面上测量光的吸光度是检测和测量水溶液中等离子体-溶剂电子浓度的有效方法。随后在不同波长上的测量结果在吸收谱的测量。虽然这个实验是在一个水次氯酸的4溶液中进行的, 但如果电子能在液体中化, 那么这种方法应该对其他种类的液体有效。
次氯酸4解决方案的一个有用的实验特性是, 次氯酸4与溶剂电子无反应。了解?...

等离子体-液体相互作用是等离子体科学和工程界越来越感兴趣的领域。等离子体与液体之间的复杂界面, 含有多种高活性自由基, 在分析化学、等离子体医学、水和废水处理、纳米材料合成等领域有广泛的应用.1,2,3,4,5,6。虽然有各种配置, 可以用来带来与液体7接触的等离子体, 也许最简单的是电解电池的等离子模拟, 其中一个标准金属电极被等离子体或气体放电所取代8. 等离子体电化学电池由反应堆容器、浸入式金属电极和等离子体放电组成, 它可以作为阴极或阳极 (或两者) 的作用。当等离子体放电被用作阴极时, 等离子体中产生的气相电子被注入溶液中。电子进入溶液后, 它们的动能在飞9,10,11的时间尺度上消散, 主要通过非弹性散射的溶剂分子。一旦电子达到了接近热的动能, 它们就会在周围的溶剂分子形成的空穴中捕获和化。根据溶剂和温度, 这些 "溶剂" 电子可能是稳定的, 直到他们与一些可还原的物种在解决方案或与另一个溶剂电子的反应。在水溶液中, 溶剂电子也被称为水合电子12。
这种溶剂的过程早已为人所知, 并从二十世纪六十年代13,14,15, 研究了由脉冲辐或闪光光解等过程产生的水合电子的检测。在传统的辐和光解中, 溶剂电子通过溶剂分子的电离产生;然而, 电子溶剂在血浆-液体接口被注射从气体血浆16。先前的实验已经确定水合电子吸收红光近 700 nm13,14,17, 这使得它们可以通过光学吸收光谱进行实验研究。其他的实验已经测量了它们的扩散常数, 它们的反应速率与数以百计的化学种类, 它们的回转半径, 以及它们的电荷移动性, 以及其他感兴趣的属性12,18。
在文献中, 报告了几种检测溶剂电子的方法, 主要分为两类: 体积剂量法, 其中溶剂电子存在是从其反应产物的大宗化学分析中推断出来的,直接瞬态吸收光谱法, 当反应发生时, 电子的吸收量被测量。后一类, 这里提出的方法是基于, 具有直接和即时证据的优势, 以及监测中间反应的能力。
全内反射吸收谱 (拉斯) 方法的发展背后的基本原理是直接研究溶剂电子在等离子体-液体界面上的作用。反射几何的选择, 因为生产溶剂电子使用等离子体放电, 而不是方法, 如辐或光解, 发生在界面之间的等离子体和液体。当探针激光在入射的浅角度吃表面时, 它被完全反射回溶液中, 并输出到探测器中, 减少了电子吸收的少量光。由于没有光进入等离子体, 实验技术只测量液相中的自由基, 就在界面下方, 因此是一种高度敏感的界面检测技术。此外, 总的内部反射现象具有消除噪声的优点, 即由于表面起伏而引起的部分反射的变化, 从而导致信号的控制。
本文概述的拉斯协议具有三基本特性。第一种是等离子体电化学电池, 它由一个透明的玻璃烧杯组成, 它由两个光学窗口构成, 在大约°朝下的角度和氩气的控制顶部。第二个特性是光学测量系统, 它包括二极管激光器、光笼和光电二极管探测器。激光器提供被溶剂电子吸收的光, 并安装在一个可调节的虹膜和一个光学笼中的 50 mm 透镜上。这种安排是安装在一个测, 使它可以旋转到一个预期的入射角。然后由光电探测器测量透射光的强度, 它由在反向偏置泄漏电路中有线的大面积光电二极管组成。最后, 由于他们的高反应性, 溶剂电子只击穿 ~ 10 毫微米入解答, 产生极小的光学吸收信号的 ~ 10-5光学密度。为了保证一个足够高的信噪比, 第三要素是一个锁定放大系统, 其中包括一个等离子开关电路和一个锁定放大器。在开关电路中, 固态继电器电路在由函数发生器设定的20赫的载波频率上调节高和低值之间的等离子体电流。这反过来也调节了界面的溶剂电子浓度及其光学吸收。锁在放大器然后采取信号从光电探测器并且过滤所有噪声在载波频率外面。
在等离子体-液体实验中, 特别是在等离子体电化学中, 拉斯方法有很大的潜力来揭示重要的化学过程。还原和氧化途径主要是由在等离子体-液体界面上的各种短寿命的自由基驱动的, 而对这些物种的检测对于了解界面化学是极其重要的。拉斯的原位监视功能将有助于建立对等离子体-液体界面所涉及的重要电子驱动反应的更深入的了解。拉斯, 例如, 使测量的反应率可能存在的电子清道夫。以前的研究重点是减少没有2-(蒽醌), 没有3-(蒽醌)和 H2O2 (蒽醌)清除剂溶解在水溶液16, 以及减少溶解CO2 (蒽醌)19。其他研究的重点是等离子体载体气体对等离子体-溶剂电子化学的影响20。

<table><tbody><tr><td>Function Generator</td><td>Protek</td><td>B8055</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lock-in Amplifier</td><td>Stanford Research Systems</td><td>SR830</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>High-Voltage Power Supply</td><td>Stanford Research Systems</td><td>PS325</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Photodetector</td><td>Self-built</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Flowmeter</td><td>Key Instruments</td><td>60310 R5</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Flow controller</td><td>Omega Engineering</td><td>FMA 5400A/5500A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Camera</td><td>Dino-lite</td><td>Dinocapture 2.0</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Voltmeter</td><td>Amprobe</td><td>AM-510</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Optical Cage System</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td></td><td>30 mm cage system</td></tr><tr><td>Goniometers</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td>RP01 - &amp;Oslash;2</td><td>Manual rotation stage</td></tr><tr><td>Diode lasers</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Electrochemical cell</td><td>Adams &amp;amp; Chittenden Scientific Glass</td><td>Custom-made product</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Stainless steel capillary</td><td>Restek</td><td></td><td>0.007 in. ID</td></tr><tr><td>SHV Coax Cable</td><td>SRS</td><td>Custom-made product</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Perchlorate</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td></td><td>ACS reagent, &amp;ge;98.0%</td></tr><tr><td>Argon</td><td>Airgas</td><td>AR UHP300</td><td>Ultra-high purity</td></tr><tr><td>LabVIEW</td><td>National Instruments</td><td></td><td>Software used to generate in-house program used to collect data</td></tr></tbody></table>

total internal reflection absorption spectroscopy (tiras) for the detection of solvated electrons at a plasma-liquid interface

本文提出的全内反射吸收光谱法 (拉斯) 方法采用廉价的二极管激光器, 检测与水溶液接触的低温等离子体产生的溶剂电子。溶剂电子是一种强大的还原剂, 它被认为在气体等离子体或放电和导电液体之间的界面化学中起着重要的作用。然而, 由于在界面上的反应物种的高度局部浓度, 他们有一个短的平均寿命 (〜1µs), 这使得他们极其难以检测。拉斯技术使用独特的全内反射几何结合振幅调制锁定放大, 以区分溶剂电子的吸光度信号从其他杂散噪声源。这使得原位检测界面区域中的短寿命中间体, 而不是溶液中的稳定产品的批量测量。这种方法对于等离子体电化学领域尤其有吸引力, 因为在那里, 许多重要的化学物质都是由短寿命自由基驱动的。本实验方法用于分析亚硝酸盐的还原 (无2-(蒽醌)), 硝酸盐 (没有3-(蒽醌)), 过氧化氢 (H2O2 (蒽醌)) 和溶解的二氧化碳 (CO2 (蒽醌)) 通过等离子体溶剂电子, 并推断出有效速率常数。这种方法的局限性可能出现在非预期的平行反应中, 例如等离子体中的空气污染, 而减少的电化学产品的沉淀也会阻碍吸光度的测量。总的来说, 拉斯法可以成为研究等离子体-液体界面的有力工具, 但其有效性取决于所研究的特定系统和反应化学。

如步骤5所述, 本实验测量吸收信号的余弦和正弦分量、它们之间的相角和信号的大小。在图 4中显示了信号的大小及其两个分量的图。
有时, 将有可能不是最佳或甚至无法使用的测量。这可能是由于激光与等离子束的失调或引入噪声进入系统。一个好的和坏的测量的例子可以在图 5?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Total Internal Reflection Absorption Spectroscopy TIRAS for the Detection of Solvated Electrons at a Plasma-liquid Interface at JoVE.com

Total Internal Reflection Absorption Spectroscopy TIRAS for the Detection of Solvated Electrons at a Plasma-liquid Interface

本文提出了一种全内反射吸收光谱法 (拉斯) 测量等离子体-液体界面的短活自由基。特别是, 拉斯是用来识别溶剂电子的基础上, 其光学吸收的红光近700纳米。

全内反射吸收光谱法 (拉斯) 在等离子体-液体界面上检测溶剂电子

The total internal reflection absorption spectroscopy (TIRAS) method presented in this article uses an inexpensive diode laser to detect solvated ...

total-internal-reflection-absorption-spectroscopy-tiras-for-detection

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

Total Internal Reflection Absorption Spectroscopy (TIRAS) for the Detection of Solvated Electrons at a Plasma-liquid Interface

13.6K 次观看.  University of Notre Dame. 本文提出了一种全内反射吸收光谱法 (拉斯) 测量等离子体-液体界面的短活自由基。特别是, 拉斯是用来识别溶剂电子的基础上, 其光学吸收的红光近700纳米。

视频: Total Internal Reflection Absorption Spectroscopy TIRAS for the Detection of Solvated Electrons at a Plasma-liquid Interface

Angle-resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy At Ultra-low Temperatures

The physical properties of a material are defined by its electronic structure. Electrons in solids are characterized by energy (&omega;) and momentum (k) and the probability to find them in a particular state with given &omega; and k is described by the spectral function A(k, &omega;). This function can be directly measured in an experiment based on the well-known photoelectric effect, for the explanation of which Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize back in 1921. In the photoelectric effect the light shone on a surface ejects electrons from the material. According to Einstein, energy conservation allows one to determine the energy of an electron inside the sample, provided the energy of the light photon and kinetic energy of the outgoing photoelectron are known. Momentum conservation makes it also possible to estimate k relating it to the momentum of the photoelectron by measuring the angle at which the photoelectron left the surface. The modern version of this technique is called Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (ARPES) and exploits both conservation laws in order to determine the electronic structure, i.e. energy and momentum of electrons inside the solid. In order to resolve the details crucial for understanding the topical problems of condensed matter physics, three quantities need to be minimized: uncertainty* in photon energy, uncertainty in kinetic energy of photoelectrons and temperature of the sample.
In our approach we combine three recent achievements in the field of synchrotron radiation, surface science and cryogenics. We use synchrotron radiation with tunable photon energy contributing an uncertainty of the order of 1 meV, an electron energy analyzer which detects the kinetic energies with a precision of the order of 1 meV and a He3 cryostat which allows us to keep the temperature of the sample below 1 K. We discuss the exemplary results obtained on single crystals of Sr2RuO4 and some other materials. The electronic structure of this material can be determined with an unprecedented clarity.

The overall goal of this method is to determine the low-energy electronic structure of solids at ultra-low temperatures using Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy with synchrotron radiation.

在极低的温度下角分辨光电子能谱

The physical properties of a material are defined by its  electronic structure. Electrons in solids are characterized by energy (&omega;)  and momentum ...

科研

工程学

In Situ SIMS and IR Spectroscopy of Well-defined Surfaces Prepared by Soft Landing of Mass-selected Ions

Soft landing of mass-selected ions onto surfaces is a powerful approach for the highly-controlled preparation of materials that are inaccessible using conventional synthesis techniques. Coupling soft landing with in situ characterization using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) enables analysis of well-defined surfaces under clean vacuum conditions. The capabilities of three soft-landing instruments constructed in our laboratory are illustrated for the representative system of surface-bound organometallics prepared by soft landing of mass-selected ruthenium tris(bipyridine) dications, [Ru(bpy)3]2+ (bpy = bipyridine), onto carboxylic acid terminated self-assembled monolayer surfaces on gold (COOH-SAMs). In situ time-of-flight (TOF)-SIMS provides insight into the reactivity of the soft-landed ions. In addition, the kinetics of charge reduction, neutralization and desorption occurring on the COOH-SAM both during and after ion soft landing are studied using in situ Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR)-SIMS measurements. In situ IRRAS experiments provide insight into how the structure of organic ligands surrounding metal centers is perturbed through immobilization of organometallic ions on COOH-SAM surfaces by soft landing. Collectively, the three instruments provide complementary information about the chemical composition, reactivity and structure of well-defined species supported on surfaces.

In Situ SIMS and IR Spectroscopy of Well-defined Surfaces Prepared by Soft Landing of Mass-selected Ions

Soft landing of mass-selected ions onto surfaces is a powerful approach for the highly-controlled preparation of novel materials. Coupled with analysis by in situ secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS), soft landing provides unprecedented insights into the interactions of well-defined species with surfaces.

在质谱选择离子软着陆准备好定义的表面原位二次离子质谱和红外光谱

Soft landing of mass-selected ions onto surfaces is a powerful approach for the highly-controlled preparation of materials that are inaccessible using ...

化学

Measurement and Analysis of Atomic Hydrogen and Diatomic Molecular AlO, C2, CN, and TiO Spectra Following Laser-induced Optical Breakdown

In this work, we present time-resolved measurements of atomic and diatomic spectra following laser-induced optical breakdown. A typical LIBS arrangement is used. Here we operate a Nd:YAG laser at a frequency of 10 Hz at the fundamental wavelength of 1,064 nm. The 14 nsec pulses with anenergy of 190 mJ/pulse are focused to a 50 &#181;m spot size to generate a plasma from optical breakdown or laser ablation in air. The microplasma is imaged onto the entrance slit of a 0.6 m spectrometer, and spectra are recorded using an 1,800 grooves/mm grating an intensified linear diode array and optical multichannel analyzer (OMA) or an ICCD. Of interest are Stark-broadened atomic lines of the hydrogen Balmer series to infer electron density. We also elaborate on temperature measurements from diatomic emission spectra of aluminum monoxide (AlO), carbon (C2), cyanogen (CN), and titanium monoxide (TiO).
The experimental procedures include wavelength and sensitivity calibrations. Analysis of the recorded molecular spectra is accomplished by the fitting of data with tabulated line strengths. Furthermore, Monte-Carlo type simulations are performed to estimate the error margins. Time-resolved measurements are essential for the transient plasma commonly encountered in LIBS.

Measurement and Analysis of Atomic Hydrogen and Diatomic Molecular AlO, C2, CN, and TiO Spectra Following Laser-induced Optical Breakdown

Time-resolved atomic and diatomic molecular species are measured using LIBS. The spectra are collected at various time delays following the generation of optical breakdown plasma with Nd:YAG laser radiation&#160;and are analyzed to infer electron density and temperature.

测量和原子氢和双原子分子ALO，C分析<sub&gt; 2</sub&gt;，CN和二氧化钛光谱承接激光诱导光学击穿

In this work, we present time-resolved measurements of atomic and diatomic spectra following laser-induced optical breakdown. A typical LIBS arrangement ...

Emission Spectroscopic Boundary Layer Investigation during Ablative Material Testing in Plasmatron

Ablative Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) allowed the first humans to safely return to Earth from the moon and are still considered as the only solution for future high-speed reentry missions. But despite the advancements made since Apollo, heat flux prediction remains an imperfect science and engineers resort to safety factors to determine the TPS thickness. This goes at the expense of embarked payload, hampering, for example, sample return missions. 
Ground testing in plasma wind-tunnels is currently the only affordable possibility for both material qualification and validation of material response codes. The subsonic 1.2MW Inductively Coupled Plasmatron facility at the von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics is able to reproduce a wide range of reentry environments. This protocol describes a procedure for the study of the gas/surface interaction on ablative materials in high enthalpy flows and presents sample results of a non-pyrolyzing, ablating carbon fiber precursor. With this publication, the authors envisage the definition of a standard procedure, facilitating comparison with other laboratories and contributing to ongoing efforts to improve heat shield reliability and reduce design uncertainties.
The described core techniques are non-intrusive methods to track the material recession with a high-speed camera along with the chemistry in the reactive boundary layer, probed by emission spectroscopy. Although optical emission spectroscopy is limited to line-of-sight measurements and is further constrained to electronically excited atoms and molecules, its simplicity and broad applicability still make it the technique of choice for analysis of the reactive boundary layer. Recession of the ablating sample further requires that the distance of the measurement location with respect to the surface is known at all times during the experiment. Calibration of the optical system of the applied three spectrometers allowed quantitative comparison. At the fiber scale, results from a post-test microscopy analysis are presented.

Development of new ablative materials and their numerical modeling requires extensive experimental investigation. This protocol describes procedures for material response characterization in plasma flows with the core techniques being non-intrusive methods to track the material recession along with the chemistry in the reactive boundary layer by emission spectroscopy.

烧蚀材料在试验过程中等离子体发生器发射光谱边界层研究

Ablative Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) allowed the first humans to safely return to Earth from the moon and are still considered as the only solution ...

Applying X-ray Imaging Crystal Spectroscopy for Use as a High Temperature Plasma Diagnostic

X-ray spectra provide a wealth of information on high temperature plasmas; for example electron temperature and density can be inferred from line intensity ratios. By using a Johann spectrometer viewing the plasma, it is possible to construct profiles of plasma parameters such as density, temperature, and velocity with good spatial and time resolution. However, benchmarking atomic code modeling of X-ray spectra obtained from well-diagnosed laboratory plasmas is important to justify use of such spectra to determine plasma parameters when other independent diagnostics are not available. This manuscript presents the operation of the High Resolution X-ray Crystal Imaging Spectrometer with Spatial Resolution (HIREXSR), a high wavelength resolution spatially imaging X-ray spectrometer used to view hydrogen- and helium-like ions of medium atomic number elements in a tokamak plasma. In addition, this manuscript covers a laser blow-off system that can introduce such ions to the plasma with precise timing to allow for perturbative studies of transport in the plasma.

X-ray spectra provide a wealth of information on high temperature plasmas. This manuscript presents the operation of a high wavelength resolution spatially imaging X-ray spectrometer used to view hydrogen- and helium-like ions of medium atomic number elements in a tokamak plasma.

运用X射线成像光谱水晶的使用为高温等离子体诊断

X-ray spectra provide a wealth of information on high temperature plasmas; for example electron temperature and density can be inferred from line ...

Non-equilibrium Microwave Plasma for Efficient High Temperature Chemistry

A flowing microwave plasma based methodology for converting electric energy into internal and/or translational modes of stable molecules with the purpose of efficiently driving non-equilibrium chemistry is discussed. The advantage of a flowing plasma reactor is that continuous chemical processes can be driven with the flexibility of startup times in the seconds timescale. The plasma approach is generically suitable for conversion/activation of stable molecules such as CO2, N2 and CH4. Here the reduction of CO2 to CO is used as a model system: the complementary diagnostics illustrate how a baseline thermodynamic equilibrium conversion can be exceeded by the intrinsic non-equilibrium from high vibrational excitation. Laser (Rayleigh) scattering is used to measure the reactor temperature and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) to characterize in situ internal (vibrational) excitation as well as the effluent composition to monitor conversion and selectivity.

This article describes a flowing microwave reactor that is used to drive efficient non-equilibrium chemistry for the application of conversion/activation of stable molecules such as CO2, N2 and CH4. The goal of the procedure described here is to measure the in situ gas temperature and gas conversion.

用于高效高温化学的非平衡微波等离子体

A flowing microwave plasma based methodology for converting electric energy into internal and/or translational modes of stable molecules with the purpose ...

Determination of the Excitation and Coupling Rates Between Light Emitters and Surface Plasmon Polaritons

We have developed a unique method to measure the excitation and coupling rates between the light emitters and surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) arising from metallic periodic arrays without involving time-resolved techniques. We have formulated the rates by quantities that can be measured by simple optical measurements. The instrumentation based on angle- and polarization-resolved reflectivity and photoluminescence spectroscopy will be described in detail here. Our approach is intriguing due to its simplicity, which requires routine optics and several mechanical stages, and thus is highly affordable to most of the research laboratories.

This protocol describes the instrumentation for determining the excitation and coupling rates between light emitters and Bloch-like surface plasmon polaritons arising from periodic arrays.

光发射器与表面等离子体极化激元的激发和耦合速率的测定

We have developed a unique method to measure the excitation and coupling rates between the light emitters and surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) arising ...

Vibrational Spectra of a N719-Chromophore/Titania Interface from Empirical-Potential Molecular-Dynamics Simulation, Solvated by a Room Temperature Ionic Liquid

The accurate molecular simulation prediction of vibrational spectra, and other structural, energetic and spectral characteristics, of photo-active metal-oxide surfaces in contact with light-absorbing dyes is an ongoing thorny and elusive challenge in physical chemistry. With this in mind, a molecular-dynamics (MD) simulation were performed by using optimized empirical potentials for a well-representative and prototypical dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) solvated by a widely-studied room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL), in the guise of a [bmim]+[NTf2]- RTIL solvating an N719-sensitizing dye adsorbed onto 101 anatase-titania. In doing so, important insights were gleaned into how using a RTIL as the electrolytic hole acceptor modulates the dynamical and vibrational properties of a N719 dye, estimating the spectra for the DSC photo-active interface via Fourier transformation of mass-weighted velocity autocorrelation functions from MD. The acquired vibrational spectra were compared with the experiment spectra and those sampled from ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD); in particular, various empirical-potential spectra generated from MD provide insight into how partial-charge charge parameterization of the ionic liquid affects vibrational spectra prediction. In any event, careful fitting of empirical force-field models has been shown to be an effective tool in handling DSC vibrational properties, when validated by AIMD and an experiment.

A dye-sensitized solar cell was solvated by RTILs; using optimized empirical potentials, a molecular dynamics simulation was applied to compute vibrational properties. The obtained vibrational spectra were compared with experiment and ab initio molecular dynamics; various empirical potential spectra show how partial-charge charge parameterization of the ionic liquid affects vibrational spectra prediction.

N719-色光/钛合金界面的振动光谱，来自经验-电位分子动力学模拟，由室温离子液体解低

The accurate molecular simulation prediction of vibrational spectra, and other structural, energetic and spectral characteristics, of photo-active ...

Building Langmuir Probes and Emissive Probes for Plasma Potential Measurements in Low Pressure, Low Temperature Plasmas

Langmuir probes have long been used in experimental plasma physics research as the primary diagnostic for particle fluxes (i.e., electron and ion fluxes) and their local spatial concentrations, for electron temperatures, and for electrostatic plasma potential measurements, since its invention by Langmuir in the early 1920s. Emissive probes are used for measuring plasma potentials. The protocols exhibited in this work serve to demonstrate how these probes may be built for use in a vacuum chamber in which a plasma discharge may be confined and sustained. This involves vacuum techniques for building what is essentially an electrical feedthrough, one that is rotatable and translatable. Certainly, complete Langmuir probe systems may be purchased, but they can also be built by the user at considerable cost savings, and at the same time be more directly adapted to their use in a particular experiment. We describe the use of Langmuir probes and emissive probes in mapping the electrostatic plasma potential from the body of the plasma up to the sheath region of a plasma boundary, which in these experiments&#160;is created by a negatively biased electrode immersed within the plasma, in order to compare the two diagnostic techniques and assess their relative advantages and weaknesses. Although Langmuir probes have the advantage of measuring the plasma density and electron temperature most accurately, emissive probes can measure electrostatic plasma potentials more accurately throughout the plasma, up to and including the sheath region.

The main goal of this work is to make it easier for research groups unfamiliar with Langmuir probes and emissive probes to use them as plasma diagnostics, especially near plasma boundaries. We do this by demonstrating how to build the probes from readily available materials and supplies.

构建朗缪尔探头和发射探头，用于低压、低温等离子体中的等离子体电位测量

Langmuir probes have long been used in experimental plasma physics research as the primary diagnostic for particle fluxes (i.e., electron and ion fluxes) ...

Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging to Detect Protein Secretions from a Single Cell

Source: Raghu, D. et al., <a href="https://appjove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/v/53120">A Label-free Technique for the Spatio-temporal Imaging of Single Cell Secretions.</a> J. Vis. Exp.&#160;(2015)
This video demonstrates localized surface plasmon resonance imaging to detect protein secretions from a single cell. Using a microfluidic setup and a peptide-bound plasmonic nanostructure chip, changes in reflected light intensity at the resonance angle reveal interactions with secreted proteins from a single cell.

全内反射吸收光谱法 (拉斯) 在等离子体-液体界面上检测溶剂电子

摘要

探索更多视频

此视频中的章节