LCA 承认来自 NDSEG 奖学金, NSF GRFP, 和麦戈文研究所的朋友的资助。EP 承认资助哈利和尤尼斯 Nohara UROP 基金, 麻省理工学院的 1995年 UROP 基金, 和麻省理工学院 UROP 基金。ESB 承认来自 NIH 2R44NS070453-03A1、"让哈维奖" 和 "纽约干细胞基金会-罗伯逊奖" 的资助。RD 承认来自 NIH EY017292 的资金。迈克尔. 威廉姆斯在拍摄前帮助团队组织和收集补给品。

注意: 所有动物程序都符合 NIH 的指导方针, 并获得了麻省理工学院动物保育委员会的批准. 
 1. 照明灯制作 <ol> <li> 使用一对锋利的剪刀切割250和 #181 的部分; m 直径塑料光纤, 至少10厘米长于所需总照明长度. </li>
	<li> 从塑料光纤的一端取下 15-20 厘米的聚乙烯护套, 使用22口径的钢丝剥皮器. </li>
	<li> 在表虎钳钳夹中保护纤维的最远端 3-5 厘米的末端. </li>
	<li> 握住纤维的一端紧扣在一只手固定的稳定拉。纤维应平行于地板, 垂直于副。在整个加热和冷却过程中保持纤维的恒定张力 (下面的步骤1.5 和 1.6), 使纤维保持平直和绷紧. </li>
	<li> 使用双温热枪的最低设置 (570/1000 和 #176; F), 将纤维的剥离部分加热到直径为 60-100 和 #956; m, 或关于人的头发的直径. </li>
	<li> 保持纤维上的恒定张力, 同时让纤维冷却。如果不保持张力, 可能会导致纤维卷曲. </li>
	<li> 在解剖显微镜下确认变薄尖端的直径。另外, 你可以使用卡尺代替。
	<ol> <li> 如果光纤不够薄, 请根据需要重复步骤1.4 到1.6 以达到所需的笔尖直径. </li>
		<li> 可选如果 re-pulling, 则在纤维的最窄部分放置一个小标记, 如果它再次加热, 使热枪的中心目标是纤维的最窄部分. </li>
		<li> 如果纤程太薄, 请重新开始. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 一旦光纤已完全冷却并且达到了所需的直径, 则从两侧的最窄点将光纤捏3厘米。用一个快速, 尖锐的拉沿轴的纤维, 分离两侧创建一个锥形尖端. </li>
	<li> 在低功耗下检查锥形尖端 ( 例如, 在解剖显微镜下的 , 4X)。如果笔尖是分叉的或卷曲的 ( 图 1f ), 则丢弃光纤. </li>
	<li> 准备蚀刻锥形尖端, 把一条实验室胶带放在尖端的末端, 留下最后5毫米暴露。该胶带保护纤维免受蚀刻超过所需的光发射长度。根据靶区的灵长类皮层厚度, 选择该针尖长度。一个较长或较短的长度可以暴露取决于所需的照明长度。如果需要不同的蚀刻尖端长度, 则可以将实验室磁带的边缘从锥形尖端移到更近或更远的地方. </li>
	<li> 折叠小 (〜1英寸 x 2 英寸) 正方形的5和 #956; m 碳化硅研磨片在拇指和食指之间。将纤维的尖端放在研磨片的两面之间, 用小的圆周运动轻轻地蚀刻纤维, 就像在拇指和食指之间滚动一个 BB。频繁地转动纤维, 以便所有边均匀地被蚀刻。纤维顶端会出现和 #8220; 粗糙和 #8221; 在蚀刻过的区域, un-etched 区域通常看起来平滑. </li>
	<li> 重复步骤1.11 与3和 #956; m 氧化铝研磨板. </li>
	<li> 在与蚀刻尖端相对的照明灯的末端贴上一个连接器。这使得照明器可以连接到光缆或激光器. 
	 注意: 这种方法不同于套圈固定玻璃/二氧化硅光纤的首选方法。由于金属套圈比塑料光纤硬, 因此在胶合后抛光纤维和套圈作为一个单元, 会损坏塑料光纤, 因为在抛光过程中产生的细小金属碎片可以嵌入到平坦的纤维中。
	<ol> <li> 从照明灯的另一端取下大约5毫米的聚乙烯护套, 使用22口径的钢丝剥皮器. </li>
		<li> 用热刀将另一端平切, 以平滑表面. </li>
		<li> 抛光与连续地更细的研磨板的相反末端单位: 5 和 #181; m, 3 和 #956; m, 1 和 #956; m 和0.3 和 #181; m. </li>
		<li> 将平面相对端插入260和 #181; m 内径不锈钢套圈, 直到它与套圈的一端齐平. </li>
		<li> 直观地证实, 相反的一端是平滑和均匀抛光的纤维显微镜. </li>
		<li> 将光纤从套圈中取出, 并将套圈垂直贴在表的边缘, 并将光纤指向下方. </li>
		<li> 用塑料环氧树脂填充1毫升注射器, 并在注射器上附上一个钝18口径的针头. </li>
		<li> 使用针将环氧树脂放入套圈中。完全用环氧树脂填充套圈. </li>
		<li> 将光纤插入插芯. </li>
		<li> 擦除任何多余的环氧树脂从抛光表面的纤维与湿不起毛的擦拭之前, 如果需要干燥。否则, 过量的环氧树脂可以在 12-24 小时后被去除. </li>
		<li> 将纤维轻轻地储存直到校准, 并在套圈上放置一个防尘帽. </li>
	</ol> </li> </ol> 2。照明灯校准和质量控制 注意: 这些校准方法用于评估光纤尖端不同距离的光输出非线性。不均匀的光分布通常起因于 #8220; 颠簸和 #8221; 或 #8220; 波浪 #8221; 锥度. 
<ol> <li> 使用光吸收箔 ( 图 2 ) 创建集成球体顶部的光屏蔽膜片。
	 注意: 在处理轻吸箔时戴上手套, 防止皮肤油脂产生反光的污迹。
	<ol> <li> 折叠2和 #8221; 4 #8221; 一块光吸收箔在本身形成一个2和 #8221; x 2 和 #8221; 正方形和 #160; 另一种方法是切割2和 #8221; x 2 和 #8221; 正方形与一个轻的吸收的边和一个光反射的边 ( 即 , 一面是标准铝箔);然而, 折叠方法是更安全的, 因为它提供了一个沉闷的边缘处理膜片在下一步. 和 #160; </li> <li> 将实验室磁带或磁带沿正方形的边缘折叠以绑定横杆边缘。这两者都保持双方在一起, 防止从尖锐的边缘削减. </li>
		<li> 使用26口径针在广场中心穿刺一个孔. </li>
		<li> 从积分球体上卸下大螺钉盖, 并盖上膜片的开口。把洞放在中间。如果膜片被创造了以一个轻的吸收和一个反射的边, 安置轻的吸收的边和光反射的边, 面对集成球形的里面. 
		 注意: 为了防止灰尘和碎片进入积分球体, 并保持孔的中心, 确保膜片的外部的集成球体与实验室磁带. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 在500和 #181 中测量沿尖端的光输出; m 增量使用微或立体定向臂和集成球体. 
	 注意: 激光照射时, 应佩戴合适波长的安全护目镜。
	<ol> <li> 将光纤的另一端连接到激光或光源, 但尚未触发光输出. </li>
		<li> 将照明灯固定在立体定向支架上 (preferably 与实验室磁带) 的尖端 7-10 毫米以下的持有人的底部. </li>
		<li> 将立体定向支架固定在立体定向臂中. </li>
		<li> 将照明灯的尖端与膜片中心的孔对齐。当尖端与横膈膜完全相同的水平时, 微为零. </li>
		<li> 关闭房间指示灯并将积分球零除. </li>
		<li> 触发激光 (或其他光源), 并使用集成球体测量总的光功率输出. 
		 注意: 使用尽可能低的光输出进行校准测试. </li>
		<li> 降低光纤500和 #181; m 进入集成球体并重复步骤 2.2.6. </li>
		<li> 继续将光纤降低到集成球体中, 并在500和 #181 中测量总光输出; m 增量, 直到总的光功率水平关闭. 
		 警告: 当整个尖端在球体中时, 总的光功率应该是水平的。不要继续降低超过 1-2 毫米超过蚀刻尖端长度的纤维。如果尖端接触到积分球体的底部, 它可能熔化和/或破坏积分球体. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 通过绘制总的光功率输出来确认一个均匀蚀刻的光纤, 将其作为光纤被降低到集成球体以确认线性度的函数. </li> </ol>
 3. 在体内 光照 
 注意: 在这里, 这些方法使用塑料模型显示, 而不是非人类灵长类. 
<ol> <li> 植入在实验之前, 在感兴趣的大脑区域植入了25毫米直径的记录室. </li>
	<li> 在实验前进行解剖磁共振成像 (MRI)。在室内放置一个自定义的记录网格, 并用无菌的外科润滑剂填满它, 以允许网格可视化和确定硬脑膜和靶脑结构的水平. </li>
	<li> 在每个测试会话之前准备一个塔式微驱动器。
	<ol> <li> 在驱动器上的中间和下部夹具上贴一条带有斜角尖的25口径导向管。使用两个夹具确保导管保持平直。如果需要, 可以手动移动这些夹具. 
		 注意: 导管可环氧树脂或焊接到夹具上. </li>
		<li> 在同一驱动器上的上钳上固定大音量照明器。此夹具连接到驱动马达. </li>
		<li> 将大容量的照明灯通过导管完全穿线, 并确认照明灯的尖端延伸过导管的尖端. 
		 注意: 超过导管尖端的照明灯长度等于从硬脑膜到靶脑区的下边缘的距离, 如确定的 通过 MRI. </li>
		<li> 在防腐溶液中浸泡导管和照明灯 ( 如 、chlorohexidine) 进行灭菌. </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 在干净的室内放置一个自定义的灭菌网格, 并将其固定在预先方向上, 并将螺钉放在会议厅一侧。此处显示的网格有 1 mm 间距;但是, 可以根据需要自定义间距. 
	 注意: 这应该是相同的网格和方向使用的解剖 MRI. </li>
	<li> 在记录室中以预先确定的方向保护立体定向微驱动器支架. </li>
	<li> 用无菌的钝钳将照明器拉起, 从导管中缩回灭菌的照明灯。照明灯尖端应为 5-10 毫米以上的引导管尖端. 
	 注意: 照明灯将弓向外的引导管和钳。这不会损坏灵活的照明灯. </li>
	<li> 将微驱动器贴在支架上, 并将导管置于目标网孔中. </li>
	<li> 降低微驱动器的阶段, 直到引导管刚刚通过硬脑膜的水平. 
	 注意: 如果需要, 第二个微驱动器与电极可以放在舞台上, 并降低到一个不同的网孔。该电极上的局部场电位将显示一个距离相关的光伪迹, 可用于确定光源位置. </li>
	<li> 尝试用无菌镊子手动降低照明灯。
	<ol> <li> 如果有任何阻力, 请收回照明灯 5-10 毫米, 等待10分钟, 让组织和解, 再试一次. </li>
		<li> 如果在第二次尝试时仍有阻力, 请将照明灯尖端缩回引导管中, 向下引导管 0.25 mm, 然后重试. </li>
		<li> 重复, 直到照明灯通过导水管滑动而无任何阻力. </li>
		<li> 降低照明灯, 直到它绷紧. 
		 警告: 不要用力地推挤照明灯反对抵抗。在这些情况下, 导管通常没有穿透硬脑膜充分。强力推动纤维会使它自身弯曲, 防止纤维进入大脑并可能破坏尖端 ( 图 1g ). </li>
	</ol> </li> <li> 将光源的另一端上的套圈连接到较大的光学设置或激光器上. </li>
	<li> 确保非人类灵长类动物没有可见光。
	<ol> <li> 使用黑屏蔽或光吸收箔来完全包含记录塔. </li>
		<li> 将所有光学连接放置在由光吸收箔制成的屏蔽信封中. </li>
		<li> 用吸光箔或黑色电子胶带屏蔽所有跳线. </li>
		<li> 作为一种额外的预防措施, 在非人类灵长类动物后面的实验中放置一个与之相同的浅色发光二极管 (led) 库, 并以2.5 赫兹的频率连续闪烁 led。这可以防止眼睛完全适应黑暗。如果有疏忽的光漏, 这种闪光将有助于防止泄漏作为行为触发. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Herculano-Houzel, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+human+brain+in+numbers:+a+linearly+scaled-up+primate+brain.">The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain.</a> Front Hum Neurosci. 3, 31 (2009).</li><li>Tamura, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+glass-coated+tungsten+microelectrode+enclosing+optical+fibers+for+optogenetic+exploration+in+primate+deep+brain+structures.">A glass-coated tungsten microelectrode enclosing optical fibers for optogenetic exploration in primate deep brain structures.</a> J Neurosci Meth. 211 (1), 49-57 (2012).</li><li>Diester, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+optogenetic+toolbox+designed+for+primates.">An optogenetic toolbox designed for primates.</a> Nat Neurosci. 14 (3), 387-397 (2011).</li><li>Dai, J., Brooks, D. I., Sheinberg, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+and+Electrical+Microstimulation+Systematically+Bias+Visuospatial+Choice+in+Primates.">Optogenetic and Electrical Microstimulation Systematically Bias Visuospatial Choice in Primates.</a> Curr biol. 24 (1), 63-69 (2014).</li><li>Ozden, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+coaxial+optrode+as+multifunction+write-read+probe+for+optogenetic+studies+in+non-human+primates.">A coaxial optrode as multifunction write-read probe for optogenetic studies in non-human primates.</a> J Neurosci Meth. 219 (1), 142-154 (2013).</li><li>Ruiz, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetics+through+windows+on+the+brain+in+the+nonhuman+primate.">Optogenetics through windows on the brain in the nonhuman primate.</a> J Neurophysiol. 110 (6), 1455-1467 (2013).</li><li>Chuong, A. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noninvasive+optical+inhibition+with+a+red-shifted+microbial+rhodopsin.">Noninvasive optical inhibition with a red-shifted microbial rhodopsin.</a> Nat Neurosci. 17 (8), 1123-1129 (2014).</li><li>Acker, L., Pino, E. N., Boyden, E. S., Desimone, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=FEF+inactivation+with+improved+optogenetic+methods.">FEF inactivation with improved optogenetic methods.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 113 (46), 7297-7306 (2016).</li><li>Jazayeri, M., Lindbloom-Brown, Z., Horwitz, G. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Saccadic+eye+movements+evoked+by+optogenetic+activation+of+primate+V1.">Saccadic eye movements evoked by optogenetic activation of primate V1.</a> Nat Neurosci. 15 (10), 1368-1370 (2012).</li><li>Gerits, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetically+Induced+Behavioral+and+Functional+Network+Changes+in+Primates.">Optogenetically Induced Behavioral and Functional Network Changes in Primates.</a> Curr Biol. 22 (18), 1722-1726 (2012).</li><li>Ohayon, S., Grimaldi, P., Schweers, N., Tsao, D. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Saccade+modulation+by+optical+and+electrical+stimulation+in+the+macaque+frontal+eye+field.">Saccade modulation by optical and electrical stimulation in the macaque frontal eye field.</a> J Neurosci. 33 (42), 16684-16697 (2013).</li><li>Cavanaugh, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+inactivation+modifies+monkey+visuomotor+behavior.">Optogenetic inactivation modifies monkey visuomotor behavior.</a> Neuron. 76 (5), 901-907 (2012).</li></ol>

虽然 optogenetic 工具被广泛用于研究啮齿类动物的疾病和生理学, 但对大脑大容量的照明技术的挑战限制了非人类灵长类动物的遗传学的使用。在猴子的开创性研究中使用了大的光功率密度 (~ 100 兆瓦/毫米2到20瓦特/毫米2) 来照亮小容量, 也许和 #60; 1 mm3, 并报告了轻微的行为影响与兴奋 opsins 在皮层4, 9、10...

Optogenetic 工具, 允许毫秒精确, light-driven 神经元控制被广泛用于研究啮齿动物和无脊椎动物的功能生理学和行为。然而, 技术上的挑战限制了非人类灵长类大脑中遗传学的使用, 它的体积 ~ 100 x 大于啮齿动物的大脑1。
为了促进非人类灵长类动物的遗传学研究, 一个照明灯被设计来解决两个相互竞争的目标: 大体积光照和最小穿透损伤。以前试图解决其中一个问题的做法是代价高昂的。束纤维照亮更大的容量, 但以增加的直径, 并且, 因而, 损坏2,3。锥形玻璃纤维可减少穿透损伤, 但将光线聚焦到发光表面区域和 #60; 100 µm2 4,5。外部的大脑照明通过一个窗口的硬脑膜绕过的挑战, 穿透伤害和可能允许大体积照明, 但它只能用于一些肤浅的大脑区域6。
为了创建一个大体积, 小直径的照明灯 (图 1a), 塑料光纤的尖端是热锥和核心和熔覆蚀刻 (图 1b, c)。不同于将光聚焦到一个窄点的锥形光纤, 蚀刻允许光线在尖端的两侧均匀地逸出, 从而在大面积上分布光源 (图 1d, e)。由于穿透损伤与穿透直径成正比, 因此该照明灯没有比传统纤维更大的穿透损伤, 但它有和 #62; 100x. 光发射表面积和光功率的 1/第100更广泛地提供光密度在脑幻影 (1.75% 琼脂糖) (图 1e)。蒙特卡罗模型 (图 1f) 说明了传统光纤和大体积照明灯在光功率密度相等时与发光表面之间的差异。每个照明灯使用集成球体 (图 2a, b) 进行单独校准, 以确保沿尖端均匀分布 (图 2c)。
这种大体积的照明灯已经验证了 optogenetic 操作的行为和神经元射击在非人灵长类动物。纤维针尖长度可以定制的任何大脑区域和每一个动物的个人接受领域的地图。该照明灯可以配对与穿透电极的神经录音, 跨越的长度照明。此外, 由于纤维可以携带任何颜色的可见光, 它可以与任何可用的 optogenetic 分子配对。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="853">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Plastic optical fiber</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Industrial fiber optics</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">SK-10</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">250 micron diameter, Super Eska line</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Wire stripper</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Klein Tools</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:64px;">11047</td>
			<td>22 gauge</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Vise Clamp</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Wilton</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:64px;">11104</td>
			<td>Generic table mount vice clamp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Dual temperature heat gun</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Milwaukee</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">8975-6</td>
			<td>570 / 1000&#176;F</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Lab marker</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">VWR</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:64px;">52877</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Dissection microscope</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">VistaVision</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">82027-156</td>
			<td>Stereo microscope w/ dual incandescent light, 2x/4x magnification, available from VWR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Lab tape</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">89097-972</td>
			<td>4 pack of violet color; however, tape color does not matter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Silicon carbide lapping sheet</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">LF5P</td>
			<td>5 micron grit, 10 pack</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Aluminum oxide lapping sheet</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">LF3P</td>
			<td>3 micron grit, 10 pack</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Aluminum oxide lapping&#160; sheet</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">LF1P</td>
			<td>1 micron grit, 10 pack</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Calcined alumina lapping sheet</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">LF03P</td>
			<td>0.3 micron grit, 10 pack</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Hot knife</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Industrial fiber optics</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">IF370012</td>
			<td>60 Watt, heavy duty</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Fiber inspection scope</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">FS201</td>
			<td>optional</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Stainless Steel Ferrule</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Precision fiber optics</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">MM-FER2003SS-265</td>
			<td>265 micron inner diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">1 mL syringe</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">14-823-30</td>
			<td>Luer-lok tip is preferable to reduce risk of leakage, but not strictly needed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Plastic epoxy</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Industrial fiber optics</td>
			<td>40 0005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">18 gauge blunt needle</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">BD</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:64px;">305180</td>
			<td>1.5 inch length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Lint-free wipe (KimWipe)</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td>KW32</td>
			<td>available from many vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Light absorbing foil</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">BKF12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Electrical tape</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">3M</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">Temflex 1700</td>
			<td>Optional, may substitute other brands / models</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">26 gauge sharp needle&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">BD</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:64px;">305111</td>
			<td>0.5 inch length</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Micromanipulator</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Siskiyou</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">70750000E</td>
			<td>may substitute other brands/models</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Steretactic arm</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Kopf</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:64px;">1460</td>
			<td>may substitute other brands/models</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Laser safety goggles</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">KenTeK</td>
			<td>KCM-6012</td>
			<td>must be selected based on the color of laser used, example given here</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Laser or other light source</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">vortran</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">Stradus 473-50</td>
			<td>example of blue laser</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:403px;">Integrating sphere</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td>S142C</td>
			<td>Attached power meter, also available from ThorLabs, item #PM100D</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:403px;">Ultem recording chamber</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Crist instrument company</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">6-ICO-J0</td>
			<td>Customized with alignment notch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Tower microdrive with clamps</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">NAN</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">DRTBL-CMS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Guide tube</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Custom</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">N/A</td>
			<td>Made from 25 gauge spinal needle (BD) or blunt tubing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">NAN driver system</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">NAN</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">NANDrive</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Custom grid design</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">custom</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">custom</td>
			<td>plans available upon request</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Blunt forceps</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">FischerScientific</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">08-875-8A</td>
			<td>generic stainless steel blunt forceps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:403px;">Digital calipers</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Neiko</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">01407A</td>
			<td>available on amazon.com. May select a finer resolution caliper for more precise measurements.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:403px;">Patch cable</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">FG200LCC-custom</td>
			<td>This is one example of many possible patch cables. As long as the fiber diameter is less than or equal to the fiber diameter of the large volume illuminator and as long as the connectors interface, any patch cable (glass or plastic, vendor purchased or made in the lab) is fine for this application.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">Clear plastic dust caps</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">CAPF</td>
			<td>Package of 25</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:403px;">ceramic split mating sleeve</td>
			<td style="width:323px;">Precision Fiber Products, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">SM-CS1140S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

large volume, behaviorally-relevant illumination for optogenetics in non-human primates

该协议描述了一个大体积的照明灯, 这是为非人类灵长类大脑中的 optogenetic 操纵而开发的。照明灯是一种经蚀刻后的改性塑料光纤, 其发光表面积 #62; 100x。除了描述大容量照明灯的构造外, 本协议还详细介绍了用于确保均匀光分布的质量控制校准。此外, 该协议还描述了插入和移除大容量照明灯的技术。表面和深层结构都可以被照亮。这个大体积的照明灯不需要物理耦合到一个电极, 因为照明灯是由塑料, 而不是玻璃, 它会简单地弯曲的情况下, 传统的光纤将粉碎。因为这个照明灯提供光超过行为相关的组织体积 (≈ 10 mm3) 没有比传统的光纤更大的穿透损伤, 它促进行为研究使用遗传学在非人灵长类动物。

在非人灵长类动物的大脑容量的照明允许行为相关的 optogenetic 操作。Acker et al.(2016) 使用这个大容量的照明灯与红色被转移的 Halorhodopsin, 下颌7研究前额眼睛领域的世俗贡献 (FEF) 到记忆被引导的扫视在二只恒河猴。具体来说, FEF 神经元注射了一个含有颌骨的病毒载体, 然后用红光照亮, 在目标表示、延迟周期或记忆引导的扫视任务的运动准备期间, 使用大体积的照明灯。<sup ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Large Volume, Behaviorally-relevant Illumination for Optogenetics in Non-human Primates at JoVE.com

Large Volume, Behaviorally-relevant Illumination for Optogenetics in Non-human Primates

建立了一个组织穿透照明灯的协议, 以提供光超过大体积的最小直径。

非人类灵长类动物遗传学的大体积、行为相关光照

This protocol describes a large-volume illuminator, which was developed for optogenetic manipulations in the non-human primate brain. The illuminator is a ...

large-volume-behaviorally-relevant-illumination-for-optogenetics-non

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

8.0K 次观看.  Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 建立了一个组织穿透照明灯的协议, 以提供光超过大体积的最小直径。

视频: Large Volume, Behaviorally-relevant Illumination for Optogenetics in Non-human Primates

A Procedure to Study the Effect of Prolonged Food Restriction on Heroin Seeking in Abstinent Rats

In human drug addicts, exposure to drug-associated cues or environments that were previously associated with drug taking can trigger relapse during abstinence. Moreover, various environmental challenges can exacerbate this effect, as well as increase ongoing drug intake.
The procedure we describe here highlights the impact of a common environmental challenge, food restriction, on drug craving that is expressed as an augmentation of drug seeking in abstinent rats.
Rats are implanted with chronic intravenous i.v. catheters, and then trained to press a lever for i.v. heroin over a period of 10-12 days. Following the heroin self-administration phase the rats are removed from the operant conditioning chambers and housed in the animal care facility for a period of at least 14 days. While one group is maintained under unrestricted access to food (sated group), a second group (FDR group) is exposed to a mild food restriction regimen that results in their body weights maintained at 90% of their nonrestricted body weight. On day 14 of food restriction the rats are transferred back to the drug-training environment, and a drug-seeking test is run under extinction conditions (i.e.&#160;lever presses do not result in heroin delivery).
The procedure presented here results in a highly robust augmentation of heroin seeking on test day in the food restricted rats. In addition, compared to the acute food deprivation manipulations we have used before, the current procedure is a more clinically relevant model for the impact of caloric restriction on drug seeking. Moreover, it might be closer to the human condition as the rats are not required to go through an extinction-training phase before the drug-seeking test, which is an integral component of the popular reinstatement procedure.

A procedure that allows a demonstration of robust augmentation of drug seeking in food-restricted rats is described. Following heroin self-administration training, rats go through an abstinence period, in a drug-free environment, during which they are mildly food restricted. Drug seeking is then tested in the drug-associated environment.

一个过程来研究延长食品的限制对海洛因寻求戒断大鼠的影响

In human drug addicts, exposure to drug-associated cues or environments that were previously associated with drug taking can trigger relapse during ...

科研

行为学

Barnes Maze Testing Strategies with Small and Large Rodent Models

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land (Barnes) mazes. Improved performance over sessions or trials is thought to reflect learning and memory of the escape cage/platform location. Considered less stressful than water mazes, the Barnes maze is a relatively simple design of a circular platform top with several holes equally spaced around the perimeter edge. All but one of the holes are false-bottomed or blind-ending, while one leads to an escape cage. Mildly aversive stimuli (e.g.&#160;bright overhead lights) provide motivation to locate the escape cage. Latency to locate the escape cage can be measured during the session; however, additional endpoints typically require video recording. From those video recordings, use of automated tracking software can generate a variety of endpoints that are similar to those produced in water mazes (e.g.&#160;distance traveled, velocity/speed, time spent in the correct quadrant, time spent moving/resting, and confirmation of latency). Type of search strategy (i.e.&#160;random, serial, or direct) can be categorized as well. Barnes maze construction and testing methodologies can differ for small rodents, such as mice, and large rodents, such as rats. For example, while extra-maze cues are effective for rats, smaller wild rodents may require intra-maze cues with a visual barrier around the maze. Appropriate stimuli must be identified which motivate the rodent to locate the escape cage. Both Barnes and water mazes can be time consuming as 4-7 test trials are typically required to detect improved learning and memory performance (e.g.&#160;shorter latencies or path lengths to locate the escape platform or cage) and/or differences between experimental groups. Even so, the Barnes maze is a widely employed behavioral assessment measuring spatial navigational abilities and their potential disruption by genetic, neurobehavioral manipulations, or drug/ toxicant exposure.

The dry-land Barnes maze is widely used to measure spatial navigation ability in response to mildly aversive stimuli. Over consecutive days, performance (e.g.&#160;latency to locate escape cage) of control subjects improves, indicative of normal learning and memory. Differences between rats and mice necessitate apparatus and methodology changes that are detailed here.

巴恩斯迷宫测试策略与小型和大型啮齿类动物模型

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land ...

Methods to Explore the Influence of Top-down Visual Processes on Motor Behavior

Kinesthetic awareness is important to successfully navigate the environment. When we interact with our daily surroundings, some aspects of movement are deliberately planned, while others spontaneously occur below conscious awareness. The deliberate component of this dichotomy has been studied extensively in several contexts, while the spontaneous component remains largely under-explored. Moreover, how perceptual processes modulate these movement classes is still unclear. In particular, a currently debated issue is whether the visuomotor system is governed by the spatial percept produced by a visual illusion or whether it is not affected by the illusion and is governed instead by the veridical percept. Bistable percepts such as 3D depth inversion illusions (DIIs) provide an excellent context to study such interactions and balance, particularly when used in combination with reach-to-grasp movements. In this study, a methodology is developed that uses a DII to clarify the role of top-down processes on motor action, particularly exploring how reaches toward a target on a DII are affected in both deliberate and spontaneous movement domains.

It is unclear how top-down signals from the ventral visual stream affect movement. We developed a paradigm to test motor behavior towards a target on a 3D depth inversion illusion. Significant differences are reported in both deliberate, goal-directed movements and automatic actions under illusory and veridical viewing conditions.

方法探索自上而下视觉过程对电机性能的影响

Kinesthetic awareness is important to successfully navigate the environment. When we interact with our daily surroundings, some aspects of movement are ...

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia who are at familial high risk (FHR) may show similar cognitive and emotional changes. However, the neurological changes underlying the emergence of these symptoms remain unclear. This study sought to identify differences in frontal, striatal, and limbic regions in children and adolescents with FHR using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Groups of 21 children and adolescents at FHR and 21 healthy controls completed an emotional oddball task that relied on selective attention and the suppression of task-irrelevant emotional information. The standard oddball task was modified to include aversive and neutral distractors in order to examine potential group differences in both emotional and executive processing. This task was designed specifically to allow for children and adolescents to complete by keeping the difficulty and emotional image content age-appropriate. Furthermore, we demonstrate a technique for suitable fMRI registration for children and adolescent participants. This paradigm may also be applied in future studies to measure changes in neural activity in other populations with hypothesized developmental changes in executive and emotional processing.

This paper describes how to use the emotional oddball task and fMRI to measure brain activation in children and adolescents at familial high risk for schizophrenia (FHR).&#160;FMRI was used to measure differences in fronto-striato-limbic regions during an emotional oddball task. Children with FHR exhibited abnormal functional activation during adolescence.

的额边缘活度测量在儿童使用情绪穿着或行为古怪的任务与家族性高风险的精神分裂症

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with ...

Uncovering Beat Deafness: Detecting Rhythm Disorders with Synchronized Finger Tapping and Perceptual Timing Tasks

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here with the goal of uncovering rhythm disorders, such as beat deafness. Beat deafness is characterized by poor performance in perceiving durations in auditory rhythmic patterns or poor synchronization of movement with auditory rhythms (e.g., with musical beats). These tasks include the synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of simple and complex auditory stimuli and the detection of rhythmic irregularities (anisochrony detection task) embedded in the same stimuli. These tests, which are easy to administer, include an assessment of both perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities under different conditions (e.g., beat rates and types of auditory material) and are based on the same auditory stimuli, ranging from a simple metronome to a complex musical excerpt. The analysis of synchronized tapping data is performed with circular statistics, which provide reliable measures of synchronization accuracy (e.g., the difference between the timing of the taps and the timing of the pacing stimuli) and consistency. Circular statistics on tapping data are particularly well-suited for detecting individual differences in the general population. Synchronized tapping and anisochrony detection are sensitive measures for identifying profiles of rhythm disorders and have been used with success to uncover cases of poor synchronization with spared perceptual timing. This systematic assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing can be extended to populations of patients with brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson&#8217;s disease), and developmental disorders (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).

Behavioral tasks that allow for the assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) are presented. Synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of an auditory stimuli and detecting rhythmic irregularities provides a means of uncovering rhythm disorders.

揭开节拍耳聋:检测节律紊乱与同步手指敲击和感知定时任务

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here ...

A Procedure to Observe Context-induced Renewal of Pavlovian-conditioned Alcohol-seeking Behavior in Rats

Environmental contexts in which drugs of abuse are consumed can trigger craving, a subjective Pavlovian-conditioned response that can facilitate drug-seeking behavior and prompt relapse in abstinent drug users. We have developed a procedure to study the behavioral and neural processes that mediate the impact of context on alcohol-seeking behavior in rats. Following acclimation to the taste and pharmacological effects of 15% ethanol in the home cage, male Long-Evans rats receive Pavlovian discrimination training (PDT) in conditioning chambers. In each daily (Mon-Fri) PDT session, 16 trials each of two different 10 sec auditory conditioned stimuli occur. During one stimulus, the CS+, 0.2 ml of 15% ethanol is delivered into a fluid port for oral consumption. The second stimulus, the CS-, is not paired with ethanol. Across sessions, entries into the fluid port during the CS+ increase, whereas entries during the CS- stabilize at a lower level, indicating that a predictive association between the CS+ and ethanol is acquired. During PDT each chamber is equipped with a specific configuration of visual, olfactory and tactile contextual stimuli. Following PDT, extinction training is conducted in the same chamber that is now equipped with a different configuration of contextual stimuli. The CS+ and CS- are presented as before, but ethanol is withheld, which causes a gradual decline in port entries during the CS+. At test, rats are placed back into the PDT context and presented with the CS+ and CS- as before, but without ethanol. This manipulation triggers a robust and selective increase in the number of port entries made during the alcohol predictive CS+, with no change in responding during the CS-. This effect, referred to as context-induced renewal, illustrates the powerful capacity of contexts associated with alcohol consumption to stimulate alcohol-seeking behavior in response to Pavlovian alcohol cues.

A procedure to study the capacity of an alcohol associated environmental context to trigger the renewal of alcohol-seeking behavior in rats is described.

一个过程来观察大鼠巴甫洛夫空调酒精寻求行为的背景下引发的重建

Environmental contexts in which drugs of abuse are consumed can trigger craving, a subjective Pavlovian-conditioned response that can facilitate ...

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device (ALDM) Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys maintained in semi-free ranging conditions. Data accumulated during the last five years have consistently demonstrated the efficiency of this protocol to investigate individual/physical cognition in monkeys, and have further shown that this procedure reduces stress level during animal testing3. This paper demonstrates that networks of ALDM can also be used to investigate different facets of social cognition and in-group expressed behaviors in monkeys, and describes three illustrative protocols developed for that purpose. The first study demonstrates how ethological assessments of social behavior and computerized assessments of cognitive performance could be integrated to investigate the effects of socially exhibited moods on the cognitive performance of individuals. The second study shows that batteries of ALDM running in parallel can provide unique information on the influence of the presence of others on task performance. Finally, the last study shows that networks of ALDM test units can also be used to study issues related to social transmission and cultural evolution. Combined together, these three studies demonstrate clearly that ALDM testing is a highly promising experimental tool for bridging the gap in the animal literature between research on individual cognition and research on social cognition.

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device ALDM Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) aimed at testing individual cognitive abilities in semi-free ranging monkeys. The main goal of our protocol is to use a network of ALDM test units to study social cognition in non-human primates.

社会认知的非人类灵长类动物评估使用电脑自动学习设备（ALDM）测试系统的网络

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys ...

The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress. In order to study the interplay between these variables, this protocol describes two effective experimental manipulations of social relationships and supportive behavior in the laboratory. In the present article, these two manipulations are implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)&#8212;a standard stress induction paradigm in which participants are subjected to a simulated job interview. More precisely, we propose (a) a manipulation of the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST by making a shared social identity salient and (b) a manipulation of the behavior of the TSST-selection committee, which acts either supportively or unsupportively. These two experimental manipulations are designed in a modular fashion and can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. Moreover, these two manipulations can also be integrated into other stress protocols and into other standardized social interactions such as trust games, negotiation tasks, or other group tasks.

Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test).

应力的社会问题:社会支持和社会认同的特里尔社会的实验操作压力测试

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations ...

Using Facial Electromyography to Assess Facial Muscle Reactions to Experienced and Observed Affective Touch in Humans

"Affective" touch is believed to be processed in a manner distinct from discriminatory touch and to involve activation of C-tactile (CT) afferent fibers. Touch that optimally activates CT fibers is consistently rated as hedonically pleasant. Patient groups with impaired social-emotional functioning also show disordered affective touch ratings. However, relying on self-reported ratings of touch has many limitations, including recall bias and communication barriers. Here, we describe a methodological approach to study affective responses to touch via facial electromyography (EMG) that circumvents the reliance on self-report ratings. Facial EMG is an objective, quantitative, and non-invasive method to measure facial muscle activity indicative of affective responses. Responses can be assessed across healthy and patient populations without the need for verbal communication. Here, we provide two separate datasets demonstrating that CT-optimal and non-optimal touch elicit distinct facial muscle reactions. Moreover, facial EMG responses are consistent across stimulus modalities, e.g. tactile (experienced touch) and visual (observed touch). Finally, the temporal resolution of facial EMG can detect responses on timescales that supersede that of verbal reporting. Together, our data suggest that facial EMG is a suitable methodology for use in affective tactile research that can be used to supplement, or in some cases, supplant, existing measures.

We describe a protocol to assess facial muscle activity in response to experienced and observed tactile stimulation using facial electromyography.

面部肌电图对人体有经验和观察到的情感触觉的影响评估

"Affective" touch is believed to be processed in a manner distinct from discriminatory touch and to involve activation of C-tactile (CT) afferent fibers. ...

In Vivo Protocol of Controlled Subconcussive Head Impacts for the Validation of Field Study Data

Subconcussive hits pose a threat to neuronal health as they have shown to induce neuronal structural damage and functional impairment without causing outward symptomology and appear to be a key contributor to an irreversible neurodegenerative disease, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). In addition, athletes can incur more than 1,000 of these hits per season. The subconcussive soccer heading model (SSHM) is a relevant, reproducible, and leading method of isolating and examining the effects of these subconcussive head impacts. By controlling variables such as ball traveling speed, the frequency of impacts, interval, ball placement to the head, as well as by measuring head impact magnitude, the SSHM provides the scientific community with a superior avenue of investigating the acute subconcussive effects on neuronal health. In this paper, we demonstrate the utility of SSHM in studying a time-course expression of neurofilament-light polypeptide (NF-L) in plasma in a repeated measures fashion. NF-L is an axonal injury marker that has previously been shown to be elevated in boxers and football players following subconcussive head trauma. Thirty-four adult aged soccer players were recruited and randomly assigned to either a soccer heading (n = 18) or kicking (n = 16) group. The heading group executed 10 headers with soccer balls projected at a velocity of 25 mph over 10 min. The kicking group followed the same protocol with 10 kicks. Plasma samples were obtained before and at 0 h, 2 h, and 24 h after heading/kicking and assessed for NF-L expressions. The heading group showed a gradual increase in plasma NF-L expression and peaked at 24 h after the heading protocol, whereas the kicking group remained consistent across the time points. These results confirmed the NF-L data from clinical field studies, encouraging the use of SSHM to validate clinical subconcussion data.

The subconcussive soccer heading model is a safe and concise methodological approach to isolate and measure the effects of subconcussive head impacts.

控制下冲击头冲击的活体协议对现场研究数据的验证

Subconcussive hits pose a threat to neuronal health as they have shown to induce neuronal structural damage and functional impairment without causing ...