The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia research grant: UKM-GGPM-2022-069 to carry out this research.

1. Substrate preparation
<ol>
	<li>Wipe the glass substrates with lint-free cloth to remove loose dirt or debris. Wash glass substrates with water and soap, use brush to scrub any dirt on the glass.</li>
	<li>Prepare all solvents listed below in beakers, submerge the glass substrates in the solvent and sonicate accordingly at 37 kHz. Prepare methanol at 80 &#176;C for 10 min; acetone at 80 &#176;C for 10 min, ethanol at 80 &#176;C for 10 min, distilled (DI) water at 80 &#176;C for 20 min. 
	CAUTION: Handle highly volatile chemicals in a fume hood.</li>
	<li>Take out the substrates from the beaker one by one using a tweezer, put on a clean flat surface, hold down the substrate with tweezer and blow with nitrogen gas until dry.</li>
	<li>Put substrates on a hot plate at 120 &#176;C for 5-10 min to vaporize any residue. Put substrates in UV-ozone cleaner for 10 min.</li>
</ol>
2. Sputtering method
<ol>
	<li>Chamber preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Take off the aluminum shield from the gun and put the target material at the center of the cover. Tightly screw the cover on the magnetron holder and put back the aluminum shield. Cover the body of the chamber, guns, and sample holder with aluminum foil.</li>
		<li>Run short-circuit inspection by touching the probes of a multimeter between the chamber bodies (short), followed by the chamber body and the gun (short), and finally the chamber body and the target (open). This test is necessary to ensure there is no current leakage between the body (anode) and the target (cathode), which can hinder the formation of plasma.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pre-sputtering
	<ol>
		<li>Close the door and vacuum the chamber for 15 - 30 min. Press the door and the body together at the beginning of the vacuuming to ensure the door is tightly closed. Make sure the reading of the pressure gauge is decreasing.</li>
		<li>Switch ON the cooler system and set to 15 &#176;C. Turn ON the pump and refrigeration button, and open the valve connected to the sputtering instrument. 
		NOTE: RF sputtering does not function without a cooling system. The formation of plasma will not happen.</li>
		<li>Set Argon flow to 4 sccm and switch ON the gas toggle switch. Wait until the flow reaches the set value.</li>
		<li>Set rotation to 10 rpm and switch ON the rotation toggle switch. Push the Power button to switch ON the automatic matching network controller and radio frequency power supply.</li>
		<li>On the automatic matching network controller, set load and tune to 50 W each by pushing the Min/Max button and push the button from Manual to Auto.</li>
		<li>On the radio frequency power supply, set RF power to 50 W and push the Start button. Set the timer to 15 min.</li>
		<li>Switch OFF the RF power and rotation. Set Argon flow to 0 and switch OFF the toggle switch. Switch OFF the vacuum. 
		NOTE: Wait until the Argon flow reaches 0.1 sccm before switching off the vacuum.</li>
		<li>Vent to open the chamber. Make sure the turbomolecular pump (TMP) is OFF before venting. Venting while TMP is running will damage the system.</li>
		<li>Open the chamber and load substrates. Place the substrates at the outer corner of the rotating sample holder for better deposition as shown in Figure 1. 
		CAUTION: Wear mask and glove when handling the inside of the chamber to avoid inhaling small particles of materials.</li>
		<li>Close the door as shown in Figure 2 and vacuum for at least 6 h. Lower base pressure gives better deposition. The optimum base pressure for a high vacuum system such as sputtering process is 1 x 10-5 Torr.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Sputtering
	<ol>
		<li>Switch ON the cooler system and set to 15 &#176;C. Turn ON the pump and refrigeration button, and open the valve connected to the sputtering instrument.</li>
		<li>Set rotation to 10 rpm and switch ON the rotation toggle switch. Set Argon flow to 4 sccm and switch ON the gas toggle switch. Wait until the flow reaches the set value.</li>
		<li>Push the Power button to switch ON the automatic matching network controller and radio frequency power supply.</li>
		<li>On the automatic matching network controller, set load and tune to 50 W each by pushing the Min/Max button and push the button from Manual to Auto.</li>
		<li>On the radio frequency power supply, set RF power to 50 W and push the Start button. 
		NOTE: Wait until the Argon flow reaches the set value and becomes stable before turning on the RF power.</li>
		<li>Check for presence of plasma in the chamber. The formation of plasma is indicated by a glowing purple light in the chamber. If the plasma is not present once the RF power is turned ON, switch OFF Argon for 10 s, and turn it back ON. Repeat until plasma forms in the chamber.</li>
		<li>Gradually increase the RF power with 5 W per 10 s interval until it reaches 75 W. Set the timer to 60 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Post-sputtering
	<ol>
		<li>Switch OFF the RF power and rotation. Turn OFF the automatic matching network controller and radio frequency power supply.</li>
		<li>Set Argon flow to 0 and switch OFF the gas toggle switch. Switch OFF the vacuum. 
		NOTE: Wait until the Argon flow reaches 0.1 sccm before switching OFF the vacuum.</li>
		<li>Vent to open the chamber. Make sure the TMP is OFF before venting. Venting while TMP is running will damage the system.</li>
		<li>Take out all samples using tweezer and put in a clean Petri dish. 
		&#8203;CAUTION: Wear mask and glove when handling the inside of the chamber to avoid inhaling small particles of materials.</li>
		<li>Clean the chamber and vacuum for 10 - 15 min to keep the chamber under vacuum condition (free from impurities).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66248/66248fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Experimental setup. Photograph of the sputtering machine used in this study. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/66248/66248fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
3. Characterization
<ol>
	<li>Perform topographic and cross-sectional scanning using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM, under 3.0 kV operating voltage) to obtain the surface microstructural details and thickness of the sputtered films.</li>
	<li>Perform calculation on composition of the films using data of the energy dispersive X-ray spectra (EDX), attached with the FESEM. Measure Hall voltage in a permanent magnetic field of 0.57&#8239;T and probe currents of 0.8 mA and 10&#8239;mA for Sb2Te3 and Bi2Te3,, respectively to obtain the carrier concentration and conductivity of the films35.</li>
	<li>Perform in-plane measurement of Seebeck coefficient using a similar instrument used by Isotta et al.5. Mount samples with a rectangular geometry of approximately 2 cm x 1.25 cm on the setup. Measure the absolute Seebeck coefficient in 2-contact configuration against a Pt standard, with a temperature gradient of &#8776;25 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>

Deposition of Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 Thin Films on Glass Substrates via RF Sputtering

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The technique presented in this paper presents no significant difficulty in setting up the equipment and implementation. However, several critical steps need to be highlighted. As mentioned in step 2.2.10 of the protocol, optimum vacuum condition is key to produce high quality thin films with less contamination as vacuum removes residual oxygen in the chamber37. The presence of oxygen can cause cracks in the films called stress cracking indicating the importance of high vacuum system in sputtering...

Thermoelectric (TE) materials have been attracting a considerable amount of research interest regarding their ability to convert thermal energy into electricity via the Seebeck effect1 and refrigeration via Peltier cooling2. The conversion efficiency of TE material is determined by the temperature difference between the hot end of the TE leg and the cold end. Generally, the higher the temperature difference, the higher the TE figure of merit and the higher its efficiency3. TE works with no requirement for additional mechanical parts involving gas or liquid in its process, producing no waste or pollution, making it environmentally safe and considered a green energy harvesting system.
Bismuth telluride, Bi2Te3, and its alloys remain the most important class of TE material. Even in thermoelectric power generation, such as the recovery of waste heat, Bi2Te3 alloys are most commonly used due to their superior efficiency up to 200 &#176;C4 and remain an excellent TE material at ambient temperature despite the zT value of more than 2 in various TE materials5. Several published papers have studied the TE properties of this material, which shows that the stoichiometric Bi2Te3 has a negative Seebeck coefficient6,7,8, indicating n-type properties. However, this compound can be adjusted to p- and n-type by alloying with antimony telluride (Sb2Te3) and bismuth selenide (Bi2Se3), respectively, which can increase their bandgap and reduce bipolar effects9.
Antimony telluride, Sb2Te3 is another well-established TE material with high figure of merit at low temperature. While stoichiometric Bi2Te3 is a great TE with n-type properties, Sb2Te3 has p-type properties. In some cases, the properties of TE materials often depend on the atomic composition of the material such as the n-type Te-rich Bi2Te3, but a p-type Bi-rich Bi2Te3 due to BiTe antisite acceptor defects4. However, Sb2Te3 is always p-type due to comparatively low formation energy of SbTe antisite defects, even in Te-rich Sb2Te34. Thus, these two materials become suitable candidates to fabricate p-n module of thermoelectric generator for various applications.
The current conventional TEGs are made of diced ingots of n-type and p-type semiconductors connected vertically in series10. They have only been used in niche fields due to their low efficiency and bulky, rigid nature. Over time, researchers have started to explore thin film structures for better performance and application. It is reported that thin film TE have advantages over their bulky counterpart such as higher zT due to their low thermal conductivity11,12, less amount of material and easier integration with integrated circuit12. As a result, niche TE research on thin film thermoelectric devices has been on the rise benefitting from the advantages of nanomaterial structure13,14.
Microfabrication of thin film is important to attain high performance TE materials. Various deposition approaches have been researched and developed including chemical vapor deposition15, atomic layer deposition16,17, pulsed laser deposition18,19,20, screen printing8,21, and molecular beam epitaxy22 to serve this purpose. However, the majority of these techniques suffer from high operation cost, complex growth process or complicated material preparation. On the contrary, magnetron sputtering is a cost-effective approach for producing high-quality thin films that are denser, exhibit smaller grain size, have better adhesion, and high uniformity23,24,25.
Magnetron sputtering is one of the plasma-based physical vapor deposition (PVD) processes which is widely used in various industrial applications. Sputtering process works when sufficient voltage is applied to a target (cathode), ions from the glow discharge plasma bombards the target and release not only secondary electrons, but also atoms of the cathode materials which eventually impact the surface of the substrate and condense as a thin film. Sputtering process was first commercialized in 1930s and improved in 1960s, gaining significant interest due to its ability to deposit wide range of materials using direct current (DC) and RF sputtering26,27. The magnetron sputtering overcomes low deposition rate and high substrate heating impact by utilizing magnetic field. The strong magnet confines the electrons in the plasma at or near the surface of the target and prevent damage to the formed thin film. This configuration preserves the stoichiometry and thickness uniformity of the deposited thin film28.
The preparation of Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 thermoelectric thin films using magnetron sputtering method has also been extensively studied, incorporating technique such as doping4,29,30 and annealing31 in the procedures, leading to different performance and quality. Study by Zheng et al.32 uses thermally induced diffusion method to diffuse Ag-doped Bi and Te layer which were sputtered separately. This method enables precise control on the composition of the thin films and the diffusion of Te by thermal induction protects the Te from being volatilized. The properties of the thin films can also be enhanced by pre-coating process33 before sputtering which results in better electrical conductivity due to high carrier mobility, consequently enhancing the power factor. Other than that, study by Chen et al.34 improved the thermoelectric performance of sputtered Bi2Te3 by doping Se via post-selenization diffusion reaction method. During the process, Se vaporizes and diffuses into the Bi-Te thin films to form Bi-Te-Se films, which results in 8-fold higher power factor than undoped Bi2Te3.
This paper describes our experimental setup and procedure for the RF magnetron sputtering technique to deposit Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 thin films on glass substrates. Sputtering was performed in a top-down configuration as shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 1, cathode was mounted at an angle to the substrate normal, leading to a more concentrated and convergent plasma to the substrate. The films were systematically characterized using FESEM, EDX, Hall effect and Seebeck coefficient measurement to study their surface morphology, thickness, composition, and thermoelectric properties.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66248/66248fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: A schematic of the top-down configuration sputter. The diagram was designed according, but not to scale, to the actual sputtering configuration available for this study including the arrangement of glass substrates to be sputtered viewed from the top. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/66248/66248fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Chemiz (M) Sdn. Bhd.</td>
			<td>1910151</td>
			<td>Liquid, Flammable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antimony Telluride, Sb2Te3</td>
			<td>China Rare Metal Material Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>C120222-0304</td>
			<td>Diameter 50.8 mm, Thickness 6.35 mm, 99.999% purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bismuth Telluride, Bi2Te3</td>
			<td>China Rare Metal Material Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>CB151208-0501</td>
			<td>Diameter 50.8 mm, Thickness 4.25 mm, 99.999% purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Chemiz (M) Sdn. Bhd.</td>
			<td>2007081</td>
			<td>Liquid, Flammable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>MERLIN</td>
			<td>Equipped with EDX</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hall effect measurement system</td>
			<td>Aseptec Sdn. Bhd.</td>
			<td>HMS ECOPIA 3000</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Handheld digital multimeter</td>
			<td>Prokits Industries Sdn. Bhd.</td>
			<td>303-150NCS</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HMS-3000</td>
			<td>Aseptec Sdn Bhd.</td>
			<td>HMS ECOPIA 3000</td>
			<td>Hall effect measurement software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Linseis_TA</td>
			<td>Linseis Messger&#228;te GmbH</td>
			<td>LSR-3</td>
			<td>Linseis thermal analysis software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Chemiz (M) Sdn. Bhd.</td>
			<td>2104071</td>
			<td>Liquid, Flammable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RF-DC magnetron sputtering</td>
			<td>Kurt J. Lesker Company</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Customized hybrid system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Seebeck coefficient measurement system</td>
			<td>Linseis Messger&#228;te GmbH</td>
			<td>LSR-3</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SmartTiff</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss Microscopy Ltd</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>SEM image thickness measurement software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasonic bath</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>FB15055</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV ozone cleaner</td>
			<td>Ossila Ltd</td>
			<td>L2002A3-UK</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabrication of bi2te3 and sb2te3 thermoelectric thin films using radio frequency magnetron sputtering technique

Through various studies on thermoelectric (TE) materials, thin film configuration gives superior advantages over conventional bulk TEs, including adaptability to curved and flexible substrates. Several different thin film deposition methods have been explored, yet magnetron sputtering is still favorable due to its high deposition efficiency and scalability. Therefore, this study aims to fabricate a bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) and antimony telluride (Sb2Te3) thin film via the radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering method. The thin films were deposited on soda lime glass substrates at ambient temperature. The substrates were first washed using water and soap, ultrasonically cleaned with methanol, acetone, ethanol, and deionized water for 10 min, dried with nitrogen gas and hot plate, and finally treated under UV ozone for 10 min to remove residues before the coating process. A sputter target of Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 with Argon gas was used, and pre-sputtering was done to clean the target&#39;s surface. Then, a few clean substrates were loaded into the sputtering chamber, and the chamber was vacuumed until the pressure reached 2 x 10-5 Torr. The thin films were deposited for 60 min with Argon flow of 4 sccm and RF power at 75 W and 30 W for Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3, respectively. This method resulted in highly uniform n-type Bi2Te3 and p-type Sb2Te3 thin films.

Cross-sectional micrographs of as-deposited Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 thin films were recorded using FESEM as shown in Figure 3A and Figure 3B, respectively. The surface of the overall film appears uniform and smooth. It is apparent that the crystal grains of the Bi2Te3 thin film were hexagonal, conforming the crystal structure of Bi2Te3 while the crystal grains of the Sb2...

Author Spotlight: Advancements in High-Performance Thermoelectric Thin Films Through Radio Frequency Magnetron Sputtering

The manuscript describes a protocol for radio frequency magnetron sputtering of Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 thermoelectric thin films on glass substrates, which represents a reliable deposition method that provides a wide range of applications with the potential for further development.

Fabrication of Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 Thermoelectric Thin Films using Radio Frequency Magnetron Sputtering Technique

Through various studies on thermoelectric (TE) materials, thin film configuration gives superior advantages over conventional bulk TEs, including ...

fabrication-bi2te3-sb2te3-thermoelectric-thin-films-using-radio

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

2.5K Views.  Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The manuscript describes a protocol for radio frequency magnetron sputtering of Bi2Te3 and Sb2Te3 thermoelectric thin films on glass substrates, which represents a reliable deposition method that provides a wide range of applications with the potential for further development.

Video: Author Spotlight: Advancements in High-Performance Thermoelectric Thin Films Through Radio Frequency Magnetron Sputtering

Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including microresonators. However, because of the increased acoustic radiative losses during direct liquid immersion of optomechanical devices, almost all published optomechanical experiments have been performed in solid phase. This paper discusses a recently introduced hollow microfluidic optomechanical resonator. Detailed methodology is provided to fabricate these ultra-high-Q microfluidic resonators, perform optomechanical testing, and measure radiation pressure-driven breathing mode and SBS-driven whispering gallery mode parametric vibrations. By confining liquids inside the capillary resonator, high mechanical- and optical- quality factors are simultaneously maintained.

Parametric optomechanical excitations have recently been experimentally demonstrated in microfluidic optomechanical resonators by means of optical radiation pressure and stimulated Brillouin scattering. This paper describes the fabrication of these microfluidic resonators along with methodologies for generating and verifying optomechanical oscillations.

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including ...

Formation of Thick Dense Yttrium Iron Garnet Films Using Aerosol Deposition

Aerosol deposition (AD) is a thick-film deposition process that can produce layers up to several hundred micrometers thick with densities greater than 95% of the bulk. The primary advantage of AD is that the deposition takes place entirely at ambient temperature; thereby enabling film growth in material systems with disparate melting temperatures. This report describes in detail the processing steps for preparing the powder and for performing AD using the custom-built system. Representative characterization results are presented from scanning electron microscopy, profilometry, and ferromagnetic resonance for films grown in this system. As a representative overview of the capabilities of the system, focus is given to a sample produced following the described protocol and system setup. Results indicate that this system can successfully deposit 11 &#181;m thick yttrium iron garnet films that are &#160;&#62; 90% of the bulk density during a single 5 min deposition run. A discussion of methods to afford better control of the aerosol and particle selection for improved thickness and roughness variations in the film is provided.

This report describes the use of a custom-built system to perform aerosol deposition of thick films of yttrium iron garnet onto sapphire substrates at RT. The deposited films are characterized using scanning electron microscopy, profilometry, and ferromagnetic resonance to give a representative overview of the capabilities of the technique.

Aerosol deposition (AD) is a thick-film deposition process that can produce layers up to several hundred micrometers thick with densities greater than 95% ...

Speciation and Bioavailability Measurements of Environmental Plutonium Using Diffusion in Thin Films

The biological uptake of plutonium (Pu) in aquatic ecosystems is of particular concern since it is an alpha-particle emitter with long half-life which can potentially contribute to the exposure of biota and humans. The diffusive gradients in thin films technique is introduced here for in-situ measurements of Pu bioavailability and speciation. A diffusion cell constructed for laboratory experiments with Pu and the newly developed protocol make it possible to simulate the environmental behavior of Pu in model solutions of various chemical compositions. Adjustment of the oxidation states to Pu(IV) and Pu(V) described in this protocol is essential in order to investigate the complex redox chemistry of plutonium in the environment. The calibration of this technique and the results obtained in the laboratory experiments enable to develop a specific DGT device for in-situ Pu measurements in freshwaters. Accelerator-based mass-spectrometry measurements of Pu accumulated by DGTs in a karst spring allowed determining the bioavailability of Pu in a mineral freshwater environment. Application of this protocol for Pu measurements using DGT devices has a large potential to improve our understanding of the speciation and the biological transfer of Pu in aquatic ecosystems.

The technique of diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) is proposed for speciation studies of plutonium. This protocol describes diffusion experiments probing the behavior of Pu(IV) and Pu(V) in presence of organic matter. DGTs deployed in a karstic spring allow assessment of the bioavailability of Pu.

The biological uptake of plutonium (Pu) in aquatic ecosystems is of particular concern since it is an alpha-particle emitter with long half-life which can ...

Ohmic Contact Fabrication Using a Focused-ion Beam Technique and Electrical Characterization for Layer Semiconductor Nanostructures

Layer semiconductors with easily processed two-dimensional (2D) structures exhibit indirect-to-direct bandgap transitions and superior transistor performance, which suggest a new direction for the development of next-generation ultrathin and flexible photonic and electronic devices. Enhanced luminescence quantum efficiency has been widely observed in these atomically thin 2D crystals. However, dimension effects beyond quantum confinement thicknesses or even at the micrometer scale are not expected and have rarely been observed. In this study, molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2) layer crystals with a thickness range of 6-2,700 nm were fabricated as two- or four-terminal devices. Ohmic contact formation was successfully achieved by the focused-ion beam (FIB) deposition method using platinum (Pt) as a contact metal. Layer crystals with various thicknesses were prepared through simple mechanical exfoliation by using dicing tape. Current-voltage curve measurements were performed to determine the conductivity value of the layer nanocrystals. In addition, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, selected-area electron diffractometry, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to characterize the interface of the metal&#8211;semiconductor contact of the FIB-fabricated MoSe2 devices. After applying the approaches, the substantial thickness-dependent electrical conductivity in a wide thickness range for the MoSe2-layer semiconductor was observed. The conductivity increased by over two orders of magnitude from 4.6 to 1,500 &#937;&#8722;1 cm&#8722;1, with a decrease in the thickness from 2,700 to 6 nm. In addition, the temperature-dependent conductivity indicated that the thin MoSe2 multilayers exhibited considerably weak semiconducting behavior with activation energies of 3.5-8.5 meV, which are considerably smaller than those (36-38 meV) of the bulk. Probable surface-dominant transport properties and the presence of a high surface electron concentration in MoSe2 are proposed. Similar results can be obtained for other layer semiconductor materials such as MoS2 and WS2.

We describe the approaches for the device fabrication and electrical characterization of molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2) layer semiconductor nanostructures with different thicknesses. In addition, the fabrication of ohmic contacts for MoSe2-layer nanocrystals by the focused-ion beam deposition method using platinum (Pt) as a contact metal is described.

Layer semiconductors with easily processed two-dimensional (2D) structures exhibit indirect-to-direct bandgap transitions and superior transistor ...

Indirect Fabrication of Lattice Metals with Thin Sections Using Centrifugal Casting

One of the typical methods to manufacture 3D lattice metals is the direct-metal additive manufacturing (AM) process such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Electron Beam Melting (EBM). In spite of its potential processing capability, the direct AM method has several disadvantages such as high cost, poor surface finish of final products, limitation in material selection, high thermal stress, and anisotropic properties of parts. We propose a cost-effective method to manufacture 3D lattice metals. The objective of this study is to provide a detailed protocol on fabrication of 3D lattice metals having a complex shape and a thin wall thickness; e.g., octet truss made of Al and Cu alloys having a unit cell length of 5 mm and a cell wall thickness of 0.5 mm. An overall experimental procedure is divided into eight sections: (a) 3D printing of sacrificial patterns (b) melt-out of support materials (c) removal of residue of support materials (d) pattern assembly (e) investment (f) burn-out of sacrificial patterns (g) centrifugal casting (h) post-processing for final products. The suggested indirect AM technique provides the potential to manufacture ultra-lightweight lattice metals; e.g., lattice structures with Al alloys. It appears that the process parameters should be properly controlled depending on materials and lattice geometry, observing the final products of octet truss metals by the indirect AM technique.

An indirect additive manufacturing method combining a 3D printing of polymers with a centrifugal casting is outlined for manufacturing 3D octet truss metals (Al and Cu alloys) having a unit cell length of 5 mm with a wall thickness of 0.5 mm.

One of the typical methods to manufacture 3D lattice metals is the direct-metal additive manufacturing (AM) process such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) ...

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction of degradation mechanisms and prevention of module field failure can consequently decrease investment risks as well as increase the electricity yield. An improved knowledge level can for these reasons significantly decrease the total costs of PV electricity. 
In order to better understand and minimize the degradation of PV modules, the occurring degradation mechanisms and conditions should be identified. This should preferably happen under combined stresses, since modules in the field are also simultaneously exposed to multiple stress factors. Therefore, two 'Combined Stress test with in situ measurement' setups have been designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, illumination, and electrical biases as independently controlled stress factors on solar cells and minimodules. The setups also allow real-time monitoring of the electrical properties of these samples. This protocol presents these setups and describes the experimental possibilities. Moreover, results obtained with these setups are also presented: various examples about the influence of both deposition and degradation conditions on the stability of thin film Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) as well as Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTS) solar cells are described. Results on the temperature dependency of CIGS solar cells are also presented.

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for CuIn,GaSe2 Solar Cells

Two &#39;Combined Stress test with in situ measurement&#39; setups, which allow real-time monitoring of accelerated degradation of solar cells and modules, were designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, electrical biases, and illumination as independently controlled stress factors. The setups and various experiments executed are presented.

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction ...

Fabrication of Periodic Gold Nanocup Arrays Using Colloidal Lithography

Within recent years, the field of plasmonics has exploded as researchers have demonstrated exciting applications related to chemical and optical sensing in combination with new nanofabrication techniques. A plasmon is a quantum of charge density oscillation that lends nanoscale metals such as gold and silver unique optical properties. In particular, gold and silver nanoparticles exhibit localized surface plasmon resonances-collective charge density oscillations on the surface of the nanoparticle-in the visible spectrum. Here, we focus on the fabrication of periodic arrays of anisotropic plasmonic nanostructures. These half-shell (or nanocup) structures can exhibit additional unique light-bending and polarization-dependent optical properties that simple isotropic nanostructures cannot. Researchers are interested in the fabrication of periodic arrays of nanocups for a wide variety of applications such as low-cost optical devices, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, and tamper indication. We present a scalable technique based on colloidal lithography in which it is possible to easily fabricate large periodic arrays of nanocups using spin-coating and self-assembled commercially available polymeric nanospheres. Electron microscopy and optical spectroscopy from the visible to near-infrared (near-IR) was performed to confirm successful nanocup fabrication. We conclude with a demonstration of the transfer of nanocups to a flexible, conformal adhesive film.

We demonstrate the fabrication of periodic gold nanocup arrays using colloidal lithographic techniques and discuss the importance of nanoplasmonic films.

Within recent years, the field of plasmonics has exploded as researchers have demonstrated exciting applications related to chemical and optical sensing ...

Fabrication of Ultra-thin Color Films with Highly Absorbing Media Using Oblique Angle Deposition

Ultra-thin film structures have been studied extensively for use as optical coatings, but performance and fabrication challenges remain.&#160; We present an advanced method for fabricating ultra-thin color films with improved characteristics. The proposed process addresses several fabrication issues, including large area processing. Specifically, the protocol describes a process for fabricating ultra-thin color films using an electron beam evaporator for oblique angle deposition of germanium (Ge) and gold (Au) on silicon (Si) substrates.&#160; Film porosity produced by the oblique angle deposition induces color changes in the ultra-thin film. The degree of color change depends on factors such as deposition angle and film thickness. Fabricated samples of the ultra-thin color films showed improved color tunability and color purity. In addition, the measured reflectance of the fabricated samples was converted into chromatic values and analyzed in terms of color. Our ultra-thin film fabricating method is expected to be used for various ultra-thin film applications such as flexible color electrodes, thin film solar cells, and optical filters. Also, the process developed here for analyzing the color of the fabricated samples is broadly useful for studying various color structures.

We present a detailed method for fabricating ultra-thin color films with improved characteristics for optical coatings. The oblique angle deposition technique using an electron beam evaporator allows improved color tunability and purity. Fabricated films of Ge and Au on Si substrates were analyzed by reflectance measurements and color information conversion.

Ultra-thin film structures have been studied extensively for use as optical coatings, but performance and fabrication challenges remain.&#160; We present ...

Preparation of Large-area Vertical 2D Crystal Hetero-structures Through the Sulfurization of Transition Metal Films for Device Fabrication

We have demonstrated that through the sulfurization of transition metal films such as molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W), large-area and uniform transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) MoS2 and WS2 can be prepared on sapphire substrates. By controlling the metal film thicknesses, good layer number controllability, down to a single layer of TMDs, can be obtained using this growth technique. Based on the results obtained from the Mo film sulfurized under the sulfur deficient condition, there are two mechanisms of (a) planar MoS2 growth and (b) Mo oxide segregation observed during the sulfurization procedure. When the background sulfur is sufficient, planar TMD growth is the dominant growth mechanism, which will result in a uniform MoS2 film after the sulfurization procedure. If the background sulfur is deficient, Mo oxide segregation will be the dominant growth mechanism at the initial stage of the sulfurization procedure. In this case, the sample with Mo oxide clusters covered with few-layer MoS2 will be obtained. After sequential Mo deposition/sulfurization and W deposition/sulfurization procedures, vertical WS2/MoS2 hetero-structures are established using this growth technique. Raman peaks corresponding to WS2 and MoS2, respectively, and the identical layer number of the hetero-structure with the summation of individual 2D materials have confirmed the successful establishment of the vertical 2D crystal hetero-structure. After transferring the WS2/MoS2 film onto a SiO2/Si substrate with pre-patterned source/drain electrodes, a bottom-gate transistor is fabricated. Compared with the transistor with only MoS2 channels, the higher drain currents of the device with the WS2/MoS2 hetero-structure have exhibited that with the introduction of 2D crystal hetero-structures, superior device performance can be obtained. The results have revealed the potential of this growth technique for the practical application of 2D crystals.

Through the sulfurization of pre-deposited transition metals, large-area and vertical 2D crystal hetero-structures can be fabricated. The film transferring and device fabrication procedures are also demonstrated in this report.

We have demonstrated that through the sulfurization of transition metal films such as molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W), large-area and uniform transition ...

Film Control to Study Contributions of Waves to Droplet Impact Dynamics on Thin Flowing Liquid Films

Droplet impact is a very common phenomenon in nature and attracts attention due to its aesthetic fascination and wide-ranging applications. Previous studies on flowing liquid films have neglected the contributions of spatial structures of waves to the impact outcome, while this has recently been shown to have a significant influence on the drop impact dynamics. In this report, we outline a step-by-step procedure to investigate the effect of periodic inlet forcing of a flowing liquid film leading to the production of spatiotemporally regular wave structures on drop impact dynamics. A function generator in connection with a solenoid valve is used to excite these spatiotemporally regular wave structures on the film surface while the impact dynamics of uniform-sized droplets are captured using a high-speed camera. Three distinct regions are then studied; viz. the capillary wave region preceding the large wave peak, the flat film region, and the wave hump region. The effects of important dimensionless quantities such as film Reynolds, drop Weber and Ohnesorge numbers parameterized by the film flow rate, drop speed, and drop size are also examined. Our results show interesting, hitherto undiscovered dynamics brought about by this application of film inlet forcing of the flowing film for both low and high inertia drops.

A protocol to study the contributions of waves to droplet impact dynamics on flowing liquid films is presented.

Droplet impact is a very common phenomenon in nature and attracts attention due to its aesthetic fascination and wide-ranging applications. Previous ...