We are grateful to the B. Ladoux and R.-M. M&#232;ge lab for the use of their UV-cleaner equipment, and J. Heuvingh and 0. du Roure for the initial training we received on preparing molds on silicon wafers and providing tips on microfluidics. We acknowledge funding from European Research Council Grant StG-679116 (to A.J.) and Agence Nationale de la Recherche Grants Muscactin and Conformin (to G.R.-L.).

<ol>
	<li>Wioland, H., J&#233;gou, A., Romet-Lemonne, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Celebrating+20+years+of+live+single-actin-filament+studies+with+five+golden+rules.">Celebrating 20 years of live single-actin-filament studies with five golden rules.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 119 (3), 2109506119 (2022).</li><li>Kuhn, J. R., Pollard, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+measurements+of+actin+filament+polymerization+by+total+internal+reflection+fluorescence+microscopy.">Real-time measurements of actin filament polymerization by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy.</a> Biophysical Journal. 88 (2), 1387-1402 (2005).</li><li>Brewer, L. R., Bianco, P. 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(134), e57133 (2018).</li><li>Chandradoss, S. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surface+passivation+for+single-molecule+protein+studies.">Surface passivation for single-molecule protein studies.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (86), e50549 (2014).</li><li>Schaedel, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microtubules+self-repair+in+response+to+mechanical+stress.">Microtubules self-repair in response to mechanical stress.</a> Nature Materials. 14 (11), 1156-1163 (2015).</li><li>Zimmermann, D., Morganthaler, A. N., Kovar, D. R., Suarez, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+biochemical+characterization+of+cytokinesis+actin-binding+proteins.">In vitro biochemical characterization of cytokinesis actin-binding proteins.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1369, 151-179 (2016).</li><li>Funk, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Profilin+and+formin+constitute+a+pacemaker+system+for+robust+actin+filament+growth.">Profilin and formin constitute a pacemaker system for robust actin filament growth.</a> eLife. 8, 50963 (2019).</li><li>Pandit, N. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Force+and+phosphate+release+from+Arp2/3+complex+promote+dissociation+of+actin+filament+branches.">Force and phosphate release from Arp2/3 complex promote dissociation of actin filament branches.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (24), 13519-13528 (2020).</li><li>Wioland, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ADF/Cofilin+accelerates+actin+dynamics+by+severing+filaments+and+promoting+their+depolymerization+at+both+ends.">ADF/Cofilin accelerates actin dynamics by severing filaments and promoting their depolymerization at both ends.</a> Current Biology: CB. 27 (13), 1956-1967 (2017).</li><li>Pollard, T. D., Mooseker, M. 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C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tension+modulates+actin+filament+polymerization+mediated+by+formin+and+profilin.">Tension modulates actin filament polymerization mediated by formin and profilin.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (24), 9752-9757 (2013).</li><li>Niedermayer, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intermittent+depolymerization+of+actin+filaments+is+caused+by+photo-induced+dimerization+of+actin+protomers.">Intermittent depolymerization of actin filaments is caused by photo-induced dimerization of actin protomers.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (27), 10769-10774 (2012).</li><li>Gateva, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tropomyosin+isoforms+specify+functionally+distinct+actin+filament+populations+in+vitro.">Tropomyosin isoforms specify functionally distinct actin filament populations in vitro.</a> Current Biology: CB. 27 (5), 705-713 (2017).</li><li>Aratyn, Y. S., Schaus, T. E., Taylor, E. W., Borisy, G. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intrinsic+dynamic+behavior+of+fascin+in+filopodia.">Intrinsic dynamic behavior of fascin in filopodia.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 18 (10), 3928-3940 (2007).</li><li>Pollard, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rate+constants+for+the+reactions+of+ATP-+and+ADP-actin+with+the+ends+of+actin+filaments.">Rate constants for the reactions of ATP- and ADP-actin with the ends of actin filaments.</a> The Journal of Cell Biology. 103, 2747-2754 (1986).</li><li>Wioland, H., Jegou, A., Romet-Lemonne, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Torsional+stress+generated+by+ADF/cofilin+on+cross-linked+actin+filaments+boosts+their+severing.">Torsional stress generated by ADF/cofilin on cross-linked actin filaments boosts their severing.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (7), 2595-2602 (2019).</li><li>Colombo, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+functional+family+of+fluorescent+nucleotide+analogues+to+investigate+actin+dynamics+and+energetics.">A functional family of fluorescent nucleotide analogues to investigate actin dynamics and energetics.</a> Nature Communications. 12 (1), 548 (2021).</li><li>Spudich, J. 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Biochemical studies of the interaction of the tropomyosin-troponin complex with actin and the proteolytic fragments of myosin.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 246 (15), 4866-4871 (1971).</li><li>Romet-Lemonne, G., Guichard, B., J&#233;gou, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+microfluidics+single+filament+assay+to+study+formin+control+of+actin+assembly.">Using microfluidics single filament assay to study formin control of actin assembly.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1805, 75-92 (2018).</li><li>Gieselmann, R., Kwiatkowski, D. J., Janmey, P. A., Witke, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+biochemical+characteristics+of+the+two+human+profilin+isoforms.">Distinct biochemical characteristics of the two human profilin isoforms.</a> European Journal of Biochemistry. 229 (3), 621-628 (1995).</li><li>Lin, D. C., Lin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin+polymerization+induced+by+a+motility-related+high-affinity+cytochalasin+binding+complex+from+human+erythrocyte+membrane.">Actin polymerization induced by a motility-related high-affinity cytochalasin binding complex from human erythrocyte membrane.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 76 (5), 2345-2349 (1979).</li><li>Casella, J. F., Maack, D. 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F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin-based+motility+assay.">Actin-based motility assay.</a> Current Protocols in Cell Biology. , 1-20 (2004).</li><li>Vignjevic, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+filopodia-like+bundles+in+vitro+from+a+dendritic+network.">Formation of filopodia-like bundles in vitro from a dendritic network.</a> The Journal of Cell Biology. 160 (6), 951-962 (2003).</li><li>Duellberg, C., Cade, N. 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The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Compared to standard single-filament methods where actin filaments are anchored to the surface by multiple points along their length or maintained close to it by a crowding agent such as methylcellulose, microfluidics offers a number of advantages. As interactions with the surface are minimal, the artificial pauses these interactions can induce during both elongation and depolymerization are avoided. The filaments are aligned by the flow, parallel to each other, easing their monitoring and the measurement of their length...

The assembly and disassembly of actin filaments and actin filament networks are controlled by several biochemical reactions and depend on the mechanical context. In order to gain insight into these complex mechanisms, it is invaluable to be able to observe individual reactions on individual filaments (in sufficiently large numbers). Over the past decades, the observation of dynamic actin filaments in real-time, mostly using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, has emerged as a key technique and has provided an impressive list of results that could not have been obtained with bulk solution biochemical assays1.
To achieve this, one needs to maintain fluorescently labeled actin filaments close to the surface of the microscope coverslip while exposing them to solutions of actin-binding proteins (ABPs), which can also be fluorescently labeled. Doing so provides a means to monitor events taking place on individual filaments in well-controlled biochemical conditions, and thus quantify reaction rates. However, a number of specific limitations should be considered. Artificially maintaining filaments close to the surface, often thanks to multiple anchoring points or by using a crowding agent such as methylcellulose, can alter their behavior (e.g., causing pauses in their polymerization and depolymerization2). Tracking the contour of each filament can be challenging, particularly if new filaments or filament fragments accumulate in the field of view over time. The reactions take place in a finite volume where the concentration of actin monomers and ABPs can vary over time, potentially making it difficult to derive accurate rate constants. Finally, renewing or changing the solution of ABPs is difficult to achieve in less than 30 s and will often lead to inhomogeneous protein content in the sample.
A bit over 10 years ago, inspired by what was already done to study individual Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) strands3, we introduced a new technique based on microfluidics to observe and manipulate individual actin filaments4. It allows one to circumvent the aforementioned limitations of classical single-filament techniques. In these microfluidics assays, actin filaments are grown from spectrin-actin seeds adsorbed on the coverslip. Filaments are thus anchored by one end only to the bottom of the microfluidic chamber and fluctuate above the surface without sticking. Filaments align with the flow of incoming solutions, thereby easing the monitoring of their contour length and maintaining them in a shallow region above the coverslip where TIRF can be used. Different solutions are simultaneously flowed into the chamber without mixing, and the filaments can be exposed to them sequentially and rapidly.
Here, we propose a series of basic protocols to set up single-actin-filament microfluidics assays in the lab. Coverslips and microfluidics chambers can be prepared in advance (in half a day), and the experiment itself, where several biochemical conditions can be tested, is done in less than a day.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-Casein</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>C6905</td>
			<td>Used at 8 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biopsy punch (with plunger)</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td>15115-2</td>
			<td>ID 0.75 mm, OD 1.07 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-BSA</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>A8549</td>
			<td>Used at 1 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>A8022</td>
			<td>Used at 50 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslip Mini-Rack 
			Teflon holder</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>C14784</td>
			<td>for 8 coverslips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslips 22x40mm 
			Thickness #1.5</td>
			<td>Menzel Gl&#228;ser</td>
			<td>631-1370</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DABCO</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>D27802</td>
			<td>component in f-buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DTT</td>
			<td>Euromedex</td>
			<td>EU0006-D</td>
			<td>component in f-buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ester NHS Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A20000</td>
			<td>Fluorophore for actin labeling on Lys328.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EZ-Link Sulfo-NHS-Biotin</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>21338</td>
			<td>To biotinylate actin on Lys328</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hellmanex III</td>
			<td>Hellma</td>
			<td>9-307-011-4-507</td>
			<td>Glass cleaning detergent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>NIH</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>open source software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laboport</td>
			<td>KNF</td>
			<td>811kn.18</td>
			<td>vacuum pump (ultimate vacuum: 240 mbar)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magic invisible tape</td>
			<td>Scotch</td>
			<td>7100024666</td>
			<td>standard transparent office tape</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micrewtube</td>
			<td>Simport</td>
			<td>T341-6T</td>
			<td>2 mL microfluidic reservoir tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microfluidic device Part 1: Flow Unit S</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>FLU-S-D-PCKB</td>
			<td>Flowmeter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microfluidic device Part 2: Fluiwell-4C-2 mL</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>14002001PCK</td>
			<td>Reservoir holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microfluidic device Part 3: MFCS-EZ</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>EZ-11000001 
			EZ-00345001</td>
			<td>Pressure controller</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Model 42 - UVO-Cleaner</td>
			<td>Jelight Inc.</td>
			<td>42-220</td>
			<td>Ultraviolet cleaner</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N6-(6-Aminohexyl)-ATP-ATTO-488</td>
			<td>Jena Bioscience</td>
			<td>NU-805-488</td>
			<td>ATP-ATTO used to label actin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>neutravidin</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>31000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PLL-PEG</td>
			<td>SuSoS</td>
			<td>PLL(20)-g[3.5]- PEG(2)</td>
			<td>Use at 1 mg/mL in PBS.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Sylgard 184 Silicon Elastomer</td>
			<td>Dow Corning</td>
			<td>1673921</td>
			<td>Contains PDMS base and curing agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) tubing</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>Z226661</td>
			<td>&#8220;Blue&#8221; : I.D. = 0.25 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Safety blow gun</td>
			<td>Coilhose Pneumatics</td>
			<td>700-S</td>
			<td>filtered air</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon tubing</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>228-0701P</td>
			<td>connect PEEK to coupler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless steel catheter coupler</td>
			<td>Prime Bioscience</td>
			<td>SC22/15</td>
			<td>Inserted into PDMS inlets and outlet to connect to PEEK tubing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermoplastic film</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>PM996</td>
			<td>Standard &#34;parafilm&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrapure ethanol</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>64-17-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasonic cleaning bath</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>USC200TH</td>
			<td>To accomodate 1 L beakers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum dessicator</td>
			<td>SP Bel-Art</td>
			<td>F42022-0000</td>
			<td>to degas the PDMS or solutions</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using microfluidics and fluorescence microscopy to study the assembly dynamics of single actin filaments and bundles

In order to decipher the complex molecular mechanisms that regulate the assembly and disassembly of actin filaments, it is a great asset to monitor individual reactions live in well-controlled conditions. To do so, live single-filament experiments have emerged over the past 20 years, mostly using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, and have provided a trove of key results. In 2011, in order to further expand the possibilities of these experiments and to avoid recurring problematic artifacts, we introduced simple microfluidics in these assays. This study details our basic protocol, where individual actin filaments are anchored by one end to the passivated coverslip surface, align with the flow, and can be successively exposed to different protein solutions. We also present the protocols for specific applications and explain how controlled mechanical forces can be applied, thanks to the viscous drag of the flowing solution. We highlight the technical caveats of these experiments and briefly present possible developments based on this technique. These protocols and explanations, along with today&#39;s availability of easy-to-use microfluidics equipment, should allow non-specialists to implement this assay in their labs.

For all the experiments described above, fluorescently labeled actin filaments should be clearly visible, with good contrast, indicative of low background fluorescence from the surface (Figure 4, see Supplementary File 1 for troubleshooting of common issues). Actin filaments should also not stick to the surface: when the dominant flow rate is low, the actin filaments&#39; lateral fluctuations should be perceptible when observing them live and allow one to clearly determine t...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Microfluidics and Fluorescence Microscopy to Study the Assembly Dynamics of Single Actin Filaments and Bundles at JoVE.com

Using Microfluidics and Fluorescence Microscopy to Study the Assembly Dynamics of Single Actin Filaments and Bundles

We present protocols for simple actin filament microfluidic assays, in combination with fluorescence microscopy, that allow one to accurately monitor individual actin filaments in real-time while sequentially exposing them to different protein solutions.

In order to decipher the complex molecular mechanisms that regulate the assembly and disassembly of actin filaments, it is a great asset to monitor ...

using-microfluidics-fluorescence-microscopy-to-study-assembly

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

2.5K Views.  Institut Jacques Monod. We present protocols for simple actin filament microfluidic assays, in combination with fluorescence microscopy, that allow one to accurately monitor individual actin filaments in real-time while sequentially exposing them to different protein solutions.

Video: Using Microfluidics and Fluorescence Microscopy to Study the Assembly Dynamics of Single Actin Filaments and Bundles

High-resolution Single Particle Analysis from Electron Cryo-microscopy Images Using SPHIRE

SPHIRE (SPARX for High-Resolution Electron Microscopy) is a novel open-source, user-friendly software suite for the semi-automated processing of single particle electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) data. The protocol presented here describes in detail how to obtain a near-atomic resolution structure starting from cryo-EM micrograph movies by guiding users through all steps of the single particle structure determination pipeline. These steps are controlled from the new SPHIRE graphical user interface and require minimum user intervention. Using this protocol, a 3.5 &#197; structure of TcdA1, a Tc toxin complex from Photorhabdus luminescens, was derived from only 9500 single particles. This streamlined approach will help novice users without extensive processing experience and a priori structural information, to obtain noise-free and unbiased atomic models of their purified macromolecular complexes in their native state.

This paper presents a protocol for processing cryo-EM images using the software suite SPHIRE. The present protocol can be applied for nearly all single particle EM projects that target near-atomic resolution.

SPHIRE (SPARX for High-Resolution Electron Microscopy) is a novel open-source, user-friendly software suite for the semi-automated processing of single ...

Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription to take place in eukaryotic cells. The dynamics of nucleosomes provides access to the DNA by replication and transcription machineries, and critically contributes to the molecular mechanisms underlying chromatin functions. Single-molecule studies such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging have contributed significantly to our current understanding of the role of nucleosome structure and dynamics. The current protocol describes the steps enabling high-resolution AFM imaging techniques to study the structural and dynamic properties of nucleosomes. The protocol is illustrated by AFM data obtained for the centromere nucleosomes in which H3 histone is replaced with its counterpart centromere protein A (CENP-A). The protocol starts with the assembly of mono-nucleosomes using a continuous dilution method. The preparation of the mica substrate functionalized with aminopropyl silatrane (APS-mica) that is used for the nucleosome imaging is critical for the AFM visualization of nucleosomes described and the procedure to prepare the substrate is provided. Nucleosomes deposited on the APS-mica surface are first imaged using static AFM, which captures a snapshot of the nucleosome population. From analyses of these images, such parameters as the size of DNA wrapped around the nucleosomes can be measured and this process is also detailed. The time-lapse AFM imaging procedure in the liquid is described for the high-speed time-lapse AFM that can capture several frames of nucleosome dynamics per second. Finally, the analysis of nucleosome dynamics enabling the quantitative characterization of the dynamic processes is described and illustrated.

Here, we present a protocol to characterize nucleosome particles at the single-molecule level using static and time-lapse atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging techniques. The surface functionalization method described allows for the capture of the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes in high-resolution at the nanoscale.

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription ...

Single Liposome Measurements for the Study of Proton-Pumping Membrane Enzymes Using Electrochemistry and Fluorescent Microscopy

Proton-pumping enzymes of electron transfer chains couple redox reactions to proton translocation across the membrane, creating a proton-motive force used for ATP production. The amphiphilic nature of membrane proteins requires particular attention to their handling, and reconstitution into the natural lipid environment is indispensable when studying membrane transport processes like proton translocation. Here, we detail a method that has been used for the investigation of the proton-pumping mechanism of membrane redox enzymes, taking cytochrome bo3 from Escherichia coli as an example. A combination of electrochemistry and fluorescence microscopy is used to control the redox state of the quinone pool and monitor pH changes in the lumen. Due to the spatial resolution of fluorescent microscopy, hundreds of liposomes can be measured simultaneously while the enzyme content can be scaled down to a single enzyme or transporter per liposome. The respective single enzyme analysis can reveal patterns in the enzyme functional dynamics that might be otherwise hidden by the behavior of the whole population. We include a description of a script for automated image analysis.

Here, we present a protocol to study the molecular mechanism of proton translocation across lipid membranes of single liposomes, using cytochrome bo3 as an example. Combining electrochemistry and fluorescence microscopy, pH changes in the lumen of single vesicles, containing single or multiple enzyme, can be detected and analyzed individually.

Proton-pumping enzymes of electron transfer chains couple redox reactions to proton translocation across the membrane, creating a proton-motive force used ...

Using In Vitro Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer to Study the Dynamics Of Protein Complexes at a Millisecond Time Scale

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological functions. Such interactions can be highly dynamic, meaning the interacting subunits are constantly associated and dissociated at certain rates. While measuring the binding affinity using techniques such as quantitative pull-down reveals the strength of the interaction, studying the binding kinetics provides insights on how fast the interaction occurs and how long each complex can exist. Furthermore, measuring the kinetics of an interaction in the presence of an additional factor, such as a protein exchange factor or a drug, helps reveal the mechanism by which the interaction is regulated by the other factor, providing important knowledge for the advancement of biological and medical research. Here, we describe a protocol for measuring the binding kinetics of a protein complex that has a high intrinsic association rate and can be dissociated quickly by another protein. The method uses fluorescence resonance energy transfer to report the formation of the protein complex in vitro, and it enables monitoring the fast association and dissociation of the complex in real time on a stopped-flow fluorimeter. Using this assay, the association and dissociation rate constants of the protein complex are quantified.

Protein-protein interactions are critical for biological systems, and studies of the binding kinetics provide insights into the dynamics and function of protein complexes. We describe a method that quantifies the kinetic parameters of a protein complex using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and the stopped-flow technique. &#160;

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological ...

Proteome-wide Quantification of Labeling Homogeneity at the Single Molecule Level

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a fluorescent dye and are spotted by a photodetector following their separation. Single molecule fluorescence imaging can provide ultrasensitive protein detection with its ability for visualizing individual fluorescent molecules. However, the application of this powerful imaging method to electrophoresis assays is hampered by the lack of ways to characterize the homogeneity of fluorescent labeling of each protein species across the proteome. Here, we developed a method to evaluate the labeling homogeneity across the proteome based on a single molecule fluorescence imaging assay. In our measurement using a HeLa cell sample, the proportion of proteins labeled with at least one dye, which we termed &#8216;labeling occupancy&#8217; (LO), was determined to range from 50% to 90%, supporting the high potential of the application of single molecule imaging to sensitive and precise proteome analysis.

Here, we present a protocol to assess the labeling homogeneity for each protein species in a complex protein sample at the single molecule level.

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a ...

Visualizing Surface T-Cell Receptor Dynamics Four-Dimensionally Using Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy

The signaling and function of a cell are dictated by the dynamic structures and interactions of its surface receptors. To truly understand the structure-function relationship of these receptors in situ, we need to visualize and track them on the live cell surface with enough spatiotemporal resolution. Here we show how to use recently developed Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy (LLSM) to image T-cell receptors (TCRs) four-dimensionally (4D, space and time) at the live cell membrane. T cells are one of the main effector cells of the adaptive immune system, and here we used T cells as an example to show that the signaling and function of these cells are driven by the dynamics and interactions of the TCRs. LLSM allows for 4D imaging with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution. This microscopy technique therefore can be generally applied to a wide array of surface or intracellular molecules of different cells in biology.

The goal of this protocol is to show how to use Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy to four-dimensionally visualize surface receptor dynamics in live cells. Here T cell receptors on CD4+ primary T cells are shown.

The signaling and function of a cell are dictated by the dynamic structures and interactions of its surface receptors. To truly understand the ...

High-Throughput Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence and Direct Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy Using a Photonic Chip

Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) is commonly used in single molecule localization based super-resolution microscopy as it gives enhanced contrast due to optical sectioning. The conventional approach is to use high numerical aperture microscope TIRF objectives for both excitation and collection, severely limiting the field of view and throughput. We present a novel approach to generating TIRF excitation for imaging with optical waveguides, called chip-based nanoscopy. The aim of this protocol is to demonstrate how chip-based imaging is performed in an already built setup. The main advantage of chip-based nanoscopy is that the excitation and collection pathways are decoupled. Imaging can then be done with a low magnification lens, resulting in large field of view TIRF images, at the price of a small reduction in resolution. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) were imaged using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM), showing a resolution comparable to traditional super-resolution microscopes. In addition, we demonstrate the high-throughput capabilities by imaging a 500 &#181;m x 500 &#181;m region with a low magnification lens, providing a resolution of 76 nm. Through its compact character, chip-based imaging can be retrofitted into most common microscopes and can be combined with other on-chip optical techniques, such as on-chip sensing, spectroscopy, optical trapping, etc. The technique is thus ideally suited for high throughput 2D super-resolution imaging, but also offers great opportunities for multi-modal analysis.

Chip-based super-resolution optical microscopy is a novel approach to fluorescence microscopy and offers advantages in cost effectiveness and throughput. Here, the protocols for chip preparation and imaging are shown for TIRF microscopy and localization-based super-resolution microscopy.

Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) is commonly used in single molecule localization based super-resolution microscopy as it gives enhanced ...

Visualizing Diffusional Dynamics of Gold Nanorods on Cell Membrane using Single Nanoparticle Darkfield Microscopy

Analyzing the diffusional dynamics of nanoparticles on cell membrane plays a significant role in better understanding the cellular uptake process and provides a theoretical basis for the rational design of nano-medicine delivery. Single particle tracking (SPT) analysis could probe the position and orientation of individual nanoparticles on cell membrane, and reveal their translational and rotational states. Here, we show how to use traditional dark-field microscopy to monitor the dynamics of gold nanorods (AuNRs) on live cell membrane. We also show how to extract the location and orientation of AuNRs using ImageJ and MATLAB, and how to characterize the diffusive states of AuNRs. Statistical analysis of hundreds of particles show that single AuNRs perform Brownian motion on the surface of U87 MG cell membrane. However, individual long trajectory analysis shows that AuNRs have two distinctly different types of motion states on the membrane, namely long-range transport and limited-area confinement. Our SPT methods can be potentially used to study the surface or intracellular particle diffusion in different biological cells and can become a powerful tool for investigations of complex cellular mechanisms.

Here, we show the use of traditional dark-field microscopy to monitor the dynamics of gold nanorods (AuNRs) on cell membrane. The location and orientation of single AuNRs are detected using ImageJ and MATLAB, and the diffusive states of AuNRs are characterized by single particle tracking analysis.

Analyzing the diffusional dynamics of nanoparticles on cell membrane plays a significant role in better understanding the cellular uptake process and ...

Single Molecule Fluorescence Energy Transfer Study of Ribosome Protein Synthesis

The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein complex that assembles proteins processively along mRNA templates. The diameter of the ribosome is approximately 20 nm to accommodate large tRNA substrates at the A-, P- and E-sites. Consequently, the ribosome dynamics are naturally de-phased quickly. Single molecule method can detect each ribosome separately and distinguish inhomogeneous populations, which is essential to reveal the complicated mechanisms of multi-component systems. We report the details of a smFRET method based on the Nikon Ti2 inverted microscope to probe the ribosome dynamics between the ribosomal protein L27 and tRNAs. The L27 is labeled at its unique Cys 53 position and reconstituted into a ribosome that is engineered to lack L27. The tRNA is labeled at its elbow region. As the tRNA moves to different locations inside the ribosome during the elongation cycle, such as pre- and post- translocation, the FRET efficiencies and dynamics exhibit differences, which have suggested multiple subpopulations. These subpopulations are not detectable by ensemble methods. The TIRF-based smFRET microscope is built on a manual or motorized inverted microscope, with home-built laser illumination. The ribosome samples are purified by ultracentrifugation, loaded into a home-built multi-channel sample cell and then illuminated via an evanescent laser field. The reflection laser spot can be used to achieve feedback control of perfect focus. The fluorescence signals are separated by a motorized filter-turret and collected by two digital CMOS cameras. The intensities are retrieved via the NIS-Elements software.

Single molecule fluorescence energy transfer is a method that tracks the tRNA dynamics during ribosomal protein synthesis. By tracking individual ribosomes, inhomogeneous populations are identified, which shed light on mechanisms. This method can be used to track biological conformational changes in general to reveal dynamic-function relationships in many other complexed biosystems. Single molecule methods can observe non-rate limiting steps and low-populated key intermediates, which are not accessible by conventional ensemble methods due to the average effect.

The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein complex that assembles proteins processively along mRNA templates. The diameter of the ribosome is approximately ...

Dual-Color Fluorescence Cross-Correlation Spectroscopy to Study Protein-Protein Interaction and Protein Dynamics in Live Cells

We present a protocol and workflow to perform live cell dual-color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) combined with F&#246;rster Resonance Energy transfer (FRET) to study membrane receptor dynamics in live cells using modern fluorescence labeling techniques. In dual-color FCCS, where the fluctuations in fluorescence intensity represent the dynamic &#34;fingerprint&#34; of the respective fluorescent biomolecule, we can probe co-diffusion or binding of the receptors. FRET, with its high sensitivity to molecular distances, serves as a well-known &#34;nanoruler&#34; to monitor intramolecular changes. Taken together, conformational changes and key parameters such as local receptor concentrations and mobility constants become accessible in cellular settings.
Quantitative fluorescence approaches are challenging in cells due to high noise levels and the vulnerability of the sample. Here we show how to perform this experiment, including the calibration steps using dual-color labeled &#946;2-adrenergic receptor (&#946;2AR) labeled with eGFP and SNAP-tag-TAMRA. A step-by-step data analysis procedure is provided using open-source software and templates that are easy to customize.
Our guideline enables researchers to unravel molecular interactions of biomolecules in live cells in situ with high reliability despite the limited signal-to-noise levels in live cell experiments. The operational window of FRET and particularly FCCS at low concentrations allows quantitative analysis at near-physiological conditions.

We present an experimental protocol and data analysis workflow to perform live cell dual-color fluorescence cross correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) combined with F&#246;rster Resonance Energy transfer (FRET) to study membrane receptor dynamics in live cells using modern fluorescence labeling techniques.

We present a protocol and workflow to perform live cell dual-color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) combined with F&#246;rster Resonance ...