Authors would like to acknowledge Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR; ITR-2020-2882) for funding support to Dr. Nirmal J. We would also&#160;like to thank University Grant of Commission for providing Junior Research Fellowship to Manisha Malani and Central Analytical Laboratory Facility, BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad campus for providing infrastructural facility.

This protocol follows all the animal care guidelines provided by Institutional Animal Ethics Committee, BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad campus.
1. Retinal histology
<ol>
	<li>Enucleation and fixation of the eye
	<ol>
		<li>Euthanize a 2 to 3-month-old diabetic Wistar male rat along with the age-matched control (14 to 15 weeks old) using a high dose of pentobarbital (150 mg/kg) injected through the intraperitoneal route. No detectable heartbeat confirms the death within 2-5 min.</li>
		<li>Enucleate the eye by making incisions using a scalpel blade on the nasal and temporal regions of the eye. Then cut along its edges using forceps and micro scissors to remove the eye from the orbital socket. 
		NOTE: Before sacrificing rats, keep the fixative solutions ready. 
		CAUTION: Formaldehyde irritates the skin, eye, nose, and respiratory tract. It can also cause cancer as it is a potent skin sensitizer. Wear gloves and handle it under the hood21.</li>
		<li>Wash the eye thoroughly with 10 mL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution in a Petri dish to remove blood. Remove the excess fat surrounding the eye for easy penetration of the fixative solution.</li>
		<li>Immediately place the eye in 5 mL of fixative solution with the help of forceps, and make sure it is not stuck to walls of glass vials. Stir gently for a few seconds and replace the cap with proper labeling. Incubate eye in fixative solution for 24 to 48 h in dark conditions at room temperature.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Trimming of tissue
	<ol>
		<li>After fixation, remove the eye from the fixative solution, wash with 10 mL of PBS, and place it in a Petri dish containing 10 mL of PBS chilled at 4 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Using micro forceps, hold the eye with the optic nerve and make a nick at pars plana with the help of micro scissors. Cut through the entire margin of the cornea to separate the anterior cup of an eye. Using forceps, pick the lens gently, discard it, and cut the optic nerve.</li>
		<li>Using curved micro scissors, make a longitudinal section of the posterior eyecup, passing through the optic disc dividing it into two halves. Place it in the base of the cassette and close the lid properly without any disturbance to the tissue. Label the cassettes with the tissue sample name and date.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Dehydration, clearing, and paraffin impregnation of tissue
	<ol>
		<li>Dehydrate the trimmed tissue by gradual transfer in 80 mL of 50%, 70%, 90%, and 100% ethanol. While transferring the cassettes from one concentration to another, make sure to dab them on clean tissue paper to minimize contamination. 
		NOTE: Allow the tissue to stand in each transfer for 30 min (twice). The total time consumed for this step is approximately 4 h.</li>
		<li>Upon dehydration, transfer the cassettes into 80 mL of xylene for 30 min (twice) to replace the ethanol with xylene. 
		NOTE: After incubation with xylene, the tissue becomes translucent. 
		CAUTION: Xylene is an aromatic compound with a benzene ring. It irritates the eye and mucous membrane and may also cause depressions.</li>
		<li>Finally, impregnate the tissue with pre-heated paraffin at 60 &#176;C to replace xylene in the tissue. Dab the cassettes several times on tissue paper to minimize the xylene content and place in 200 mL of paraffin (liquid at 60 &#176;C) for 2 h (1 h x 2). 
		&#8203;CAUTION: Avoid inhaling melted paraffin, as it produces tiny lipid droplets which may cause respiratory discomfort.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Paraffin embedding
	<ol>
		<li>Turn on the paraffin embedding machine at least 1 h before use to melt the paraffin and for the stations to reach desired temperatures. Fill a steel mold with melted paraffin wax by placing it on a hot surface, then remove one cassette at a time from the paraffin container.</li>
		<li>Move the steel mold from a hot to a cold surface (4 &#176;C). At this point, the wax in the mold will start to solidify. Before it solidifies completely, place the tissue in wax with the help of forceps and orient the tissue so that the optic disc portion of the posterior cup is facing the base of the mold. 
		NOTE: Ensure that the tissue does not move and keep its desired orientation. If not, put the mold back onto the warm work surface until the whole paraffin liquefies, then start again with step 1.4.2.</li>
		<li>As the wax in the mold starts solidifying, immediately place the cassette base on top of the mold. Carefully fill the mold with paraffin above the upper edge of the cassette and slowly transfer it to a cold surface (near -20 &#176;C) for rapid solidification. Until it solidifies, repeat the process with other cassettes from step 1.4.2.</li>
		<li>Once all the molds are solidified, separate the steel mold from the cassette. If it is hard, wait a bit longer and try again (do not remove it forcefully). Separation becomes easier upon complete solidification. Now the cassette becomes the base of the paraffin block to be held during sectioning by microtome. 
		NOTE: This block can be stored at room temperature for further use. At this point, the process can be stopped and continued later (if required).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Sectioning
	<ol>
		<li>Install a disposable microtome blade in the blade holder. Remove excess paraffin wax around cassettes so that both the upper and lower portions of the blocks remain parallel to the knife. Fit the block on to cassette holder.</li>
		<li>Unlock the hand-wheel to advance it until the surface of the block is in contact with the edge of the knife. Trim the excess paraffin wax on the block until the tissue is visualized on the surface of the block. Set the section thickness to 5 &#181;m and cut a ribbon of five to six sections.</li>
		<li>Using forceps, gently transfer the ribbon onto the surface of the pre-warmed water bath (around 50 &#176;C) to unfold the ribbon. Collect sections on a glass slide coated with Mayer&#39;s albumin by holding the slide beneath the section. Gently lift the sections and allow the slides to dry horizontally overnight at 37 &#176;C. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Slides can be stored at room temperature in dry boxes for several months. At this step, the process can be stopped and continued later.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Staining
	<ol>
		<li>Heat the slides to be stained in a hot air oven at 60 &#176;C for 1 h before use for the paraffin to melt, and follow the steps as mentioned in Table 1. 
		CAUTION: Hematoxylin and Eosin stains are toxic when inhaled or ingested. They have been reported to be carcinogenic.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagent</td>
			<td>Standing Time</td>
			<td>Repetition (Number of times)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>5 min</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Ethanol</td>
			<td>5 min</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>90% Ethanol</td>
			<td>5 min</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70% Ethanol</td>
			<td>5 min</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50% Ethanol</td>
			<td>5 min</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water</td>
			<td>5 min</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin</td>
			<td>4 min</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Water wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1% Acid alcohol in 70% Ethanol</td>
			<td>30 s</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Water wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scott&#39;s water</td>
			<td>1 min</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Water wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50% Ethanol</td>
			<td>1 min</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95% Ethanol</td>
			<td>1 min</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.25% Eosin</td>
			<td>5 s</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Water wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water</td>
			<td>2 min</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95% Ethanol</td>
			<td>1 min</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Ethanol</td>
			<td>1 min</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>5 min</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Mountant and coverslip</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1. Hematoxylin and Eosin staining procedure
2. Blood-brain barrier breakdown assay
<ol>
	<li>Blood and vitreous collection
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize a 2 to 3-month-old diabetic Wistar male rat along with the age-matched control (14 to 15 weeks) using ketamine (80 mg/kg) and xylazine (8 mg/kg). Confirm the anesthetic state by pedal withdraw reflex (toe pinch). Immediately collect 1 mL of blood by cardiac puncture into an ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) coated tube to separate plasma from whole blood.</li>
		<li>Euthanize the rat using a high dose of pentobarbital (150 mg/kg), injected through the intraperitoneal route. No detectable heartbeat confirms the death within 2-5 min. Enucleate the eye and immediately place it on dry ice.</li>
		<li>Place the eye in a clean Petri dish above dry ice (recommended) and start dissecting the eye as mentioned in step 1.2.2.</li>
		<li>Remove the lens, pull the vitreous carefully from the posterior cup using micro forceps and place it in a homogenization tube containing three to four glass beads (2-4 mm). 
		&#8203;NOTE: Dissection on dry ice is recommended as removing the lens and vitreous is easier under freezing conditions.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Preparation of samples
	<ol>
		<li>Homogenize vitreous humor in a bead homogenizer at medium speed for 10 s.</li>
		<li>Transfer the blood (1 mL) and vitreous samples (10-20 &#181;L) into the microcentrifuge tubes and centrifuge both the samples at 5200 x g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C. 
		&#8203;NOTE: In the case of successful homogenization, vitreous has uniform consistency after centrifugation. However, in the case of non-uniform consistency of vitreous, repeat from step 2.2.1 with increased homogenization time.</li>
		<li>Collect supernatant from both samples, and dilute vitreous humor and plasma samples in 1:10 and 1:20 ratio, respectively, with PBS.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Protein quantification and vitreous-plasma protein ratio
	<ol>
		<li>To quantitate protein concentration in vitreous humor and plasma samples, add 5 &#181;L of diluted samples to 250 &#181;L of Bradford reagent, mix well, and read the absorbance at 590 nm within 40 min. 
		NOTE: If the absorption value of the samples is above 1.0, dilute the samples further and repeat the procedure from step 2.2.3.</li>
		<li>Normalize the vitreous protein level to plasma protein level from the same rat and measure the fold difference between healthy vs. diabetic rats.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Fluorescence angiography
<ol>
	<li>FITC-dextran70000 dye injection
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize a 2 to 3-month-old diabetic Wistar male rat along with the age-matched control (14 to 15 weeks) using 3% isoflurane and confirm the pedal withdrawal reflex (toe pinch). Dip the tail in a beaker containing warm water (37-40 &#176;C). Clean the tail with 70% ethanol before injecting the dye. Locate the tail&#39;s lateral vein and mark the injection position in the lower portion of the tail. 
		NOTE: If the insertion of the needle fails, try to insert in another location above the current position (tip to the base of tail). However, it is advised to inject once as repeated pricking may lead to stress development in the rat, which could cause vasoconstriction.</li>
		<li>Inject 1 mL of 50 mg/mL FITC-dextran70000 dye solution through the tail vein and allow the dye to circulate for 5 min. Euthanize the rat with a high dose of pentobarbital (150mg/kg), injected through the intraperitoneal route. No detectable heartbeat confirms the death within 2-5 min. Enucleate the eye as mentioned in step 1.1.1. 
		NOTE: If required, the eye can be fixed in 4% formaldehyde solution, for no more than 30 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Flat mount preparation
	<ol>
		<li>For preparing flat mounts, keep the dissecting tools ready along with the slides and coverslips. Place the eye in a Petri dish filled with chilled PBS and start dissecting the eye as mentioned in step 1.2.2.</li>
		<li>Now place the tip of a pointed forcep between the sclera and retina. Gently move it all along the rim of the cup, making sure the retina is not attached to the sclera at any point. If there is any obstruction, slowly cut that portion along the rim using curved micro scissors.</li>
		<li>Once it is confirmed that the retina is not attached to the sclera from any side, cut near the optic disc, making a small hole such that the retina completely detaches from the sclera. Slowly push the retina into PBS solution and place it on a clean flat slide with the help of a spatula or forceps.</li>
		<li>Using micro scissors or scalpel blades, make minor cuts in the retinal tissue, dividing it into four quadrants. Make sure that the cuts are at least 2 mm away from the hole left by the optic disc at the center, as shown in Figure 1.</li>
		<li>Remove excess PBS from the sides of tissue using 0.2 mL tips without disturbing the flat mount.</li>
		<li>Place a drop of anti-fading mounting medium (50 &#181;L to 100 &#181;L) on a flat mount, cover with a coverslip, and visualize immediately under a confocal microscope. 
		NOTE: Maintain minimum light during the entire procedure.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Visualization of flat mount
	<ol>
		<li>Visualize the flat mount under 10x objective of a confocal microscope. Perform tile scanning to capture the entire flat mount as a single image. The number of tiles depends upon the size of the retinal flat mount. Also, perform Z-stacking to visualize the veins and arteries in different foci (preferred size for Z-stack is 5 &#181;m, depending on which, the number of Z-stack steps varies).</li>
		<li>Use PMT and HyD detector at % gain as 700-900 and 100-150, respectively. Choose emission range between 510-530 nm for FITC-dextran dye.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Jonas, J. B., Sabanayagam, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidemiology+and+risk+factors+for+diabetic+retinopathy.">Epidemiology and risk factors for diabetic retinopathy.</a> Diabetic Retinopathy and Cardiovascular Disease. 27, 20-37 (2019).</li><li>Pandova, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Visual Impairment and Blindness. , (2019).</li><li>Mokdad, A. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global,+regional,+national,+and+subnational+big+data+to+inform+health+equity+research:+perspectives+from+the+Global+Burden+of+Disease+Study+2017.">Global, regional, national, and subnational big data to inform health equity research: perspectives from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017.</a> Ethnicity &amp; Disease. 29, 159-172 (2019).</li><li>Barber, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+apoptosis+in+the+retina+during+experimental+and+human+diabetes.+Early+onset+and+effect+of+insulin.">Neural apoptosis in the retina during experimental and human diabetes. Early onset and effect of insulin.</a> The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 102 (4), 783-791 (1998).</li><li>El-Asrar, A. M. A., Dralands, L., Missotten, L., Al-Jadaan, I. A., Geboes, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+apoptosis+markers+in+the+retinas+of+human+subjects+with+diabetes.">Expression of apoptosis markers in the retinas of human subjects with diabetes.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 45 (8), 2760-2766 (2004).</li><li>Schr&#246;der, S., Palinski, W., Schmid-Sch&#246;nbein, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activated+monocytes+and+granulocytes,+capillary+nonperfusion,+and+neovascularization+in+diabetic+retinopathy.">Activated monocytes and granulocytes, capillary nonperfusion, and neovascularization in diabetic retinopathy.</a> The American Journal of Pathology. 139 (1), 81 (1991).</li><li>Miyamoto, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prevention+of+leukostasis+and+vascular+leakage+in+streptozotocin-induced+diabetic+retinopathy+via+intercellular+adhesion+molecule-1+inhibition.">Prevention of leukostasis and vascular leakage in streptozotocin-induced diabetic retinopathy via intercellular adhesion molecule-1 inhibition.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 96 (19), 10836-10841 (1999).</li><li>Bhanushali, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Linking+retinal+microvasculature+features+with+severity+of+diabetic+retinopathy+using+optical+coherence+tomography+angiography.">Linking retinal microvasculature features with severity of diabetic retinopathy using optical coherence tomography angiography.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 57 (9), 519-525 (2016).</li><li>Wang, W., Lo, A. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diabetic+retinopathy:+pathophysiology+and+treatments.">Diabetic retinopathy: pathophysiology and treatments.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19 (6), 1816 (2018).</li><li>Akbarzadeh, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+diabetes+by+streptozotocin+in+rats.">Induction of diabetes by streptozotocin in rats.</a> Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry. 22 (2), 60-64 (2007).</li><li>Weiss, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streptozocin:+a+review+of+its+pharmacology,+efficacy,+and+toxicity.">Streptozocin: a review of its pharmacology, efficacy, and toxicity.</a> Cancer Treatment Reports. 66 (3), 427-438 (1982).</li><li>Karunanayake, E. H., Hearse, D. J., Mellows, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+metabolic+fate+and+elimination+of+streptozotocin.">The metabolic fate and elimination of streptozotocin.</a> Biochemical Society Transactions. 3 (3), 410-414 (1975).</li><li>Luna, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Manual of Histologic Staining Methods of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. , (1968).</li><li>Okunlola, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histological+studies+on+the+retina+and+cerebellum+of+Wistar+rats+treated+with+Arteether.">Histological studies on the retina and cerebellum of Wistar rats treated with Arteether.</a> Journal of Morphological Sciences. 31 (01), 028-032 (2014).</li><li>Wallow, I., Engerman, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Permeability+and+patency+of+retinal+blood+vessels+in+experimental+diabetes.">Permeability and patency of retinal blood vessels in experimental diabetes.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 16 (5), 447-461 (1977).</li><li>do Cartmo, A., Ramos, P., Reis, A., Proen&#231;a, R., Cunha-Vaz, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breakdown+of+the+inner+and+outer+blood+retinal+barrier+in+streptozotocin-induced+diabetes.">Breakdown of the inner and outer blood retinal barrier in streptozotocin-induced diabetes.</a> Experimental Eye Research. 67 (5), 569-575 (1998).</li><li>Shires, T., Faeth, J., Pulido, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+levels+in+the+vitreous+of+rats+with+streptozotocin-induced+diabetes+mellitus.">Protein levels in the vitreous of rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes mellitus.</a> Brain Research Bulletin. 30 (1-2), 85-90 (1993).</li><li>D'amato, R., Wesolowski, E., Smith, L. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microscopic+visualization+of+the+retina+by+angiography+with+high-molecular-weight+fluorescein-labeled+dextrans+in+the+mouse.">Microscopic visualization of the retina by angiography with high-molecular-weight fluorescein-labeled dextrans in the mouse.</a> Microvascular Research. 46 (2), 135-142 (1993).</li><li>Gupta, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescein+angiography+refresher+course:+Here's+how+to+interpret+the+findings+of+this+useful+diagnostic+tool.">Fluorescein angiography refresher course: Here's how to interpret the findings of this useful diagnostic tool.</a> Review of Optometry. 138 (11), 60-65 (2001).</li><li>Edelman, J. L., Castro, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+image+analysis+of+laser-induced+choroidal+neovascularization+in+rat.">Quantitative image analysis of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization in rat.</a> Experimental Eye Research. 71 (5), 523-533 (2000).</li><li>Szab&#243;, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histological+evaluation+of+diabetic+neurodegeneration+in+the+retina+of+Zucker+diabetic+fatty+(ZDF)+rats.">Histological evaluation of diabetic neurodegeneration in the retina of Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats.</a> Scientific Reports. 7 (1), 1-17 (2017).</li><li>Margo, C. E., Lee, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fixation+of+whole+eyes:+the+role+of+fixative+osmolarity+in+the+production+of+tissue+artifact.">Fixation of whole eyes: the role of fixative osmolarity in the production of tissue artifact.</a> Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 233 (6), 366-370 (1995).</li><li>Tokuda, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimization+of+fixative+solution+for+retinal+morphology:+a+comparison+with+Davidson's+fixative+and+other+fixation+solutions.">Optimization of fixative solution for retinal morphology: a comparison with Davidson's fixative and other fixation solutions.</a> Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology. 62 (4), 481-490 (2018).</li><li>Luna, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Manual of Histologic Staining Methods of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. Third edition. , (1968).</li><li>Skeie, J. M., Tsang, S. H., Mahajan, V. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evisceration+of+mouse+vitreous+and+retina+for+proteomic+analyses.">Evisceration of mouse vitreous and retina for proteomic analyses.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (50), e2795 (2011).</li><li>D'Amato, R., Wesolowski, E., Smith, L. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microscopic+visualization+of+the+retina+by+angiography+with+high-molecular-weight+fluorescein-labeled+dextrans+in+the+mouse.">Microscopic visualization of the retina by angiography with high-molecular-weight fluorescein-labeled dextrans in the mouse.</a> Microvascular Research. 46 (2), 135-142 (1993).</li><li>Atkinson, E. G., Jones, S., Ellis, B. A., Dumonde, D. C., Graham, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+size+of+retinal+vascular+leakage+determined+by+FITC-dextran+angiography+in+patients+with+posterior+uveitis.">Molecular size of retinal vascular leakage determined by FITC-dextran angiography in patients with posterior uveitis.</a> Eye (Lond). 5, 440-446 (1991).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Histology 
Retinal histology is performed to visualize the morphological changes of retinal cells and layers. Various steps, including choice of fixative solution, fixation duration, dehydration, and paraffin impregnation, need to be optimized. The tissue size should not exceed 3 mm, as the fixative penetration becomes slow. The commonly used 4% paraformaldehyde leads to retinal detachment even in the healthy eye due to the relatively high osmolarity of the solution compared to aqueous humor and vit...

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most complex secondary complications of diabetes mellitus. It is also the leading cause of preventable blindness in the working-age population worldwide. In a recent meta-analysis of 32.4 million blind people, 830,000 (2.6%) people were blind due to DR1. The proportion of vision loss attributed to diabetes ranked seventh in 2015 at 1.06% (0.15-2.38) globally2,3.
Diabetic retinopathy is diagnosed by vascular abnormalities in the posterior ocular tissues. Clinically, it is divided into two stages - Non-Proliferative DR (NPDR) and Proliferative DR (PDR), based on the vascularization in the retina. Hyperglycemia is considered the potent regulator of DR as it implicates several pathways involved in neurodegeneration4,5, inflammation6,7, and microvasculature8 in the retina. Multiple metabolic complications induced due to hyperglycemia include the accumulation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), polyol pathway, hexosamine pathway, and protein kinase-C pathway. These pathways are responsible for cell proliferation (endothelial cells), migration (pericytes), and apoptosis (neural retinal cells, pericytes, and endothelial cells) based on different stages of diabetic retinopathy. These metabolic alterations can lead to physiological changes such as retinal detachment, loss of retinal cells, breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB), aneurysms, and angiogenesis9.
Streptozotocin (STZ) induced type-1 diabetes is a well-established and well-accepted practice in rats for evaluating diabetes pathogenesis and its complications. Diabetogenic effects of STZ are due to selective destruction of pancreatic islet &#946;-cells10. As a result, the animals will undergo insulin deficiency, hyperglycemia, polydipsia, and polyuria, all of which are characteristic of human type-1 diabetes mellitus11. For severe diabetes induction, STZ is administered at 40-65 mg/kg body weight intravenously or intraperitoneally during adulthood. After approximately 72 h, these animals present blood glucose levels greater than 250 mg/dL10,12.
To understand the physiological alterations of the retina due to neurodegeneration, inflammation, and angiogenesis, different techniques should be optimized in experimental animal models. Structural and functional changes in retinal cells and retinal vessels can be studied by various techniques such as histology, BRB breakdown assay, and fluorescence angiography.
Histology involves the study of the anatomy of cells, tissues, and organs at a microscopic level. It establishes a correlation between the structure and function of cells/tissue. Several steps are performed to visualize and identify the microscopic alterations in tissue structure, thereby comparing healthy and diseased counterparts13. Hence, it is essential to standardize each step of histology meticulously. Various steps involved in retinal histology are fixation of the specimen, trimming the specimen, dehydration, clearing, impregnation with paraffin, paraffin embedding, sectioning, and staining (Hematoxylin and Eosin staining)13,14.
In a healthy retina, the transport of molecules across the retina is controlled by BRB, composed of endothelial cells and pericytes on the inner side, and retinal pigment epithelial cells on the outer side. However, inner BRB endothelial cells and pericytes start degenerating during the diseased condition, and BRB is also compromised15. Due to this BRB breakdown, many low molecular weight molecules leak into vitreous and retinal tissue16. As the disease progresses, many other protein molecules (low and high molecular weight) also leak into vitreous and retinal tissue due to homeostasis disturbance17. It leads to various other complications and ultimately macular edema and blindness. Hence, quantifying the protein levels in the vitreous and comparing healthy and diabetic states measures compromised BRB.
Fluorescence angiography is a technique used to study blood circulation of the retina and choroid using fluorescent dye. It is used to visualize vasculature of the retina and choroid by injecting fluorescein dye via intravenous route or cardiac injection18. Once the dye is injected, it first reaches the retinal arteries, followed by retinal veins. This circulation of dye is usually completed within 5 to 10 min from the injection of dye19. It is an important technique to diagnose various posterior segment ocular diseases, including diabetic retinopathy and choroidal neovascularization20. It helps to detect major and minor vasculature changes in normal and diseased conditions.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Histology</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Abbott</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Anesthesia agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Troikaa Pharmaceuticals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Anesthesia agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine</td>
			<td>Indian Immunologicals Limited</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Anesthesia agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pentobarbital sodium</td>
			<td>Zora Pharma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Euthanesia agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fixative solution (1 % formaldehyde, 1.25 % Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>HiMedia, Avra</td>
			<td>MB059, ASG2529</td>
			<td>Prepared in-house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Hayman</td>
			<td>F204325</td>
			<td>Dehydration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>MB-180</td>
			<td>Clearing of ethanol or paraffin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraffin wax</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>GRM10702</td>
			<td>used for embedding tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>TC503</td>
			<td>To prepare albumin coated slides. Glycerol and egg albumin is mixed in 1:1 ratio to coat on slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>Sisco Research laboratories Pvt. Ltd.</td>
			<td>65955</td>
			<td>For preparation of 1 % acid alcohol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic acid</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>AS119</td>
			<td>For preparation of eosin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scotts water</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>3802900</td>
			<td>Bluing reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Papanicolaou&#39;s solution 1b Hematoxylin solution</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>1.09254.0500</td>
			<td>Staining of nuclei</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eosin</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>GRM115</td>
			<td>Staining of cytoplasm, 0.25 % solution was prepared in-house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DPX Mountant media</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>6522</td>
			<td>Visualization and protection of retinal sections</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glassware</td>
			<td>Borosil</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corneal forcep</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S5-1200</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Colibri forcep</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S5-1135</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Curved micro scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1311</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vannas scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1387</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iris scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1015</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cassettes</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>PW1292</td>
			<td>To hold tissue during histology processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath</td>
			<td>GT Sonic</td>
			<td>GT Sonic-D9</td>
			<td>Temperature maintenance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraffin embedding station</td>
			<td>Myr</td>
			<td>EC 350</td>
			<td>Preparation of paraffin blocks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td>Zhengzhou Nanbei Instrument Equipment Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>YD-335A</td>
			<td>Sectioning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blades</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>Leica 818</td>
			<td>Sectioning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slides</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>BG005</td>
			<td>Holding paraffin-tissue sections</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslips</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>BG014C</td>
			<td>To cover tissue after adding mounting media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blood Retinal Barrier breakdown</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Abbott</td>
			<td>B506</td>
			<td>Anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dry ice</td>
			<td>Not applicable</td>
			<td>Not applicable</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bradford reagent</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B6916</td>
			<td>Protein quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corneal forcep</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S5-1200</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Colibri forcep</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S5-1135</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Curved micro scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1311</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vannas scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1387</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iris scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1015</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glassware</td>
			<td>Borosil</td>
			<td>Not applicable</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA coated tubes</td>
			<td>J.K Diagnostics</td>
			<td>Not applicable</td>
			<td>Separate plasma from whole blood</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Homogenization tubes</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>SKU: 115076200-CF</td>
			<td>Homogenization of vitreous</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Homogenization caps</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>SKU: 115063002-CF</td>
			<td>Homogenization of vitreous</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass beads</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>SKU: 116914801</td>
			<td>Homogenization of vitreous</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Homogeniser</td>
			<td>Bertin Instruments</td>
			<td>P000673-MLYS0-A</td>
			<td>Homogenization of vitreous</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well plate - Transparent</td>
			<td>Grenier</td>
			<td>GN655101</td>
			<td>Protein quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plate reader</td>
			<td>Molecular devices</td>
			<td>SpectrMax M4</td>
			<td>Absorbance measurement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>REMI</td>
			<td>CPR240 Plus</td>
			<td>Centrifugation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence Angiography</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Abbott</td>
			<td>B506</td>
			<td>Anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FITC-dextran 70 kD (FITC, Dextran, Dibutylin dilaurate, DMSO</td>
			<td>FITC, Dextran and Dibutylin dilaurate from Sigma; DMSO from HiMedia</td>
			<td>FITC-F3651,Dextran-31390,Dibutylin dilaurate -29123, DMSO-TC185</td>
			<td>Prepared in-house</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluoroshied</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F6182</td>
			<td>Anti-fading mounting medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corneal forcep</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S5-1200</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Colibri forcep</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S5-1135</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Curved micro scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1311</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vannas scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1387</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iris scissor</td>
			<td>Stephens Instruments</td>
			<td>S7-1015</td>
			<td>Dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glassware</td>
			<td>Borosil</td>
			<td>Not applicable</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slides</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>BG005</td>
			<td>Flatmount preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslips</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>BG014C</td>
			<td>To cover tissue after adding mounting media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DMi8</td>
			<td>Visualization of flatmount</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

retinal pathophysiological evaluation in a rat model

A posterior segment eye disease like diabetic retinopathy alters the physiology of the retina. Diabetic retinopathy is characterized by a retinal detachment, breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB), and retinal angiogenesis. An in vivo rat model is a valuable experimental tool to examine the changes in the structure and function of the retina. We propose three different experimental techniques in the rat model to identify morphological changes of retinal cells, retinal vasculature, and compromised BRB. Retinal histology is used to study the morphology of various retinal cells. Also, quantitative measurement is performed by retinal cell count and thickness measurement of different retinal layers. A BRB breakdown assay is used to determine the leakage of extraocular proteins from the plasma to vitreous tissue due to the breakdown of BRB. Fluorescence angiography is used to study angiogenesis and leakage of blood vessels by visualizing retinal vasculature using FITC-dextran dye.

Retinal histology 
In the diabetic retina, retinal cells undergo degeneration. In addition, the thickness of the retinal layers increase due to edema22. The images obtained after Hematoxylin and Eosin staining can be used for cell count and measurement of the thickness of different layers, as shown in Figure 2 using ImageJ.
Blood-retinal barrier breakdown assay 
As the BRB is compromised in diabet...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Retinal Pathophysiological Evaluation in a Rat Model at JoVE.com

Retinal Pathophysiological Evaluation in a Rat Model

Diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of blindness. Histology, blood-retinal barrier breakdown assay, and fluorescence angiography are valuable techniques to understand the pathophysiology of the retina, which could further enhance the efficient drug screening against diabetic retinopathy.

A posterior segment eye disease like diabetic retinopathy alters the physiology of the retina. Diabetic retinopathy is characterized by a retinal ...

retinal-pathophysiological-evaluation-in-a-rat-model

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

4.4K Views.  Birla Institute of Technology & Science — Pilani, Hyderabad Campus. Diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of blindness. Histology, blood-retinal barrier breakdown assay, and fluorescence angiography are valuable techniques to understand the pathophysiology of the retina, which could further enhance the efficient drug screening against diabetic retinopathy.

Video: Retinal Pathophysiological Evaluation in a Rat Model

A Model of Chronic Nutrient Infusion in the Rat

Chronic exposure to excessive levels of nutrients is postulated to affect the function of several organs and tissues and to contribute to the development of the many complications associated with obesity and the metabolic syndrome, including type 2 diabetes. To study the mechanisms by which excessive levels of glucose and fatty acids affect the pancreatic beta-cell and the secretion of insulin, we have established a chronic nutrient infusion model in the rat. The procedure consists of catheterizing the right jugular vein and left carotid artery under general anesthesia; allowing a 7-day recuperation period; connecting the catheters to the pumps using a swivel and counterweight system that enables the animal to move freely in the cage; and infusing glucose and/or Intralipid (a soybean oil emulsion which generates a mixture of approximately 80% unsaturated/20% saturated fatty acids when infused with heparin) for 72 hr. This model offers several advantages, including the possibility to finely modulate the target levels of circulating glucose and fatty acids; the option to co-infuse pharmacological compounds; and the relatively short time frame as opposed to dietary models. It can be used to examine the mechanisms of nutrient-induced dysfunction in a variety of organs and to test the effectiveness of drugs in this context.

A protocol for chronic infusions of glucose and Intralipid in rats is described. This model can be used to study the impact of nutrient excess on organ function and physiological parameters.

Chronic exposure to excessive levels of nutrients is postulated to  affect the function of several organs and tissues and to contribute to the  ...

Evaluation of Tumor-infiltrating Leukocyte Subsets in a Subcutaneous Tumor Model

Specialized immune cells that infiltrate the tumor microenvironment regulate the growth and survival of neoplasia.&#160; Malignant cells must elude or subvert anti-tumor immune responses in order to survive and flourish. Tumors take advantage of a number of different mechanisms of immune &#8220;escape,&#8221; including the recruitment of tolerogenic DC, immunosuppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs), and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) that inhibit cytotoxic anti-tumor responses. Conversely, anti-tumor effector immune cells can slow the growth and expansion of malignancies: immunostimulatory dendritic cells, natural killer cells which harbor innate anti-tumor immunity, and cytotoxic T cells all can participate in tumor suppression. The balance between pro- and anti-tumor leukocytes ultimately determines the behavior and fate of transformed cells; a multitude of human clinical studies have borne this out. Thus, detailed analysis of leukocyte subsets within the tumor microenvironment has become increasingly important. Here, we describe a method for analyzing infiltrating leukocyte subsets present in the tumor microenvironment in a mouse tumor model. Mouse B16 melanoma tumor cells were inoculated subcutaneously in C57BL/6 mice. At a specified time, tumors and surrounding skin were resected en bloc and processed into single cell suspensions, which were then stained for multi-color flow cytometry. Using a variety of leukocyte subset markers, we were able to compare the relative percentages of infiltrating leukocyte subsets between control and chemerin-expressing tumors. Investigators may use such a tool to study the immune presence in the tumor microenvironment and when combined with traditional caliper size measurements of tumor growth, will potentially allow them to elucidate the impact of changes in immune composition on tumor growth. Such a technique can be applied to any tumor model in which the tumor and its microenvironment can be resected and processed.

This protocol describes a method for the detailed evaluation of leukocyte subsets within the tumor microenvironment in a mouse tumor model. Chemerin-expressing B16 melanoma cells were implanted subcutaneously into syngeneic mice. Cells from the tumor microenvironment were then stained and analyzed by flow cytometry, allowing for detailed leukocyte subset analyses.

Specialized immune cells that infiltrate the tumor microenvironment regulate the growth and survival of neoplasia.&#160; Malignant cells must elude or ...

Quantitative Fundus Autofluorescence for the Evaluation of Retinal Diseases

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is juxtaposed to the overlying sensory retina, and supports the function of the visual system. Among the tasks performed by the RPE are phagocytosis and processing of outer photoreceptor segments through lysosome-derived organelles. These degradation products, stored and referred to as lipofuscin granules, are composed partially of bisretinoids, which have broad fluorescence absorption and emission spectra that can be detected clinically as fundus autofluorescence with confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (cSLO). Lipofuscin accumulation is associated with increasing age, but is also found in various patterns in both acquired and inherited degenerative diseases of the retina. Thus, studying its pattern of accumulation and correlating such patterns with changes in the overlying sensory retina are essential to understanding the pathophysiology and progression of retinal disease. Here, we describe a technique employed by our lab and others that uses cSLO in order to quantify the level of RPE lipofuscin in both healthy and diseased eyes.

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) supports the sensory retina through recycling visual cycle byproducts, which accumulate as lipofuscin. These products are autofluorescent and can be qualitatively imaged in vivo. Here, we describe a method to quantitatively image RPE lipofuscin using confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy.

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is juxtaposed to the overlying sensory retina, and supports the function of the visual system. Among the tasks ...

Isometric Contractility Measurement of the Mouse Mesenteric Artery Using Wire Myography

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and drugs. It is widely used in many studies on the physiological functions of vascular smooth muscle, the pathogenesis of vascular diseases such as hypertension, and the development of smooth muscle relaxant drugs. The mouse is a widely used model animal with a large pool of disease models and genetically modified strains. We introduced this method to measure the isometric contraction of mouse mesenteric artery in detail. A 1.4-mm segment of mouse mesenteric resistance artery was isolated and mounted on a myograph chamber by passing two steel wires through its lumen. After equilibration and normalization steps, the vessel segment was potentiated by a high-K+ solution twice prior to the contraction assay. As an example of the application of this method in drug development, we measured the relaxant effect of a novel natural substance, neoliensinine, isolated from a Chinese herb, embryos of the lotus seed (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) on mouse mesenteric arteries. The vessel segments mounted on the myograph chamber were stimulated with a high-K+ solution. When the force tension reached a stable sustained phase, cumulative doses of neoliensinine were added to the chamber. We found that neoliensinine had a dose-dependent relaxant effect on smooth muscle contraction, thus suggesting that it bears potential activity against hypertension. In addition, as the vessel segment can survive at least 4 hours after mounting and maintain contractility induced by the high-K+ solution for many times, we suggest that the wire myograph system may be used for the time-consuming process of drug screening.

The wire myograph technique is used to investigate vascular smooth muscle functions and screen new drugs. We report a detailed protocol for measuring the isometric contractility of the mouse mesenteric artery and for screening new relaxants of vascular smooth muscle.

The wire myograph technique is used to assess the contractility of vascular smooth muscles in response to depolarization, GPCR agonists/inhibitors and ...

Evaluation of Cerebral Blood Flow Autoregulation in the Rat Using Laser Doppler Flowmetry

When investigating the body&#39;s mechanisms for regulating cerebral blood flow, a relative measurement of microcirculatory blood flow can be obtained using laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF). This paper demonstrates a closed skull preparation that allows cerebral blood flow to be assessed without penetrating the skull or installing a chamber or cerebral window. To evaluate autoregulatory mechanisms, a model of controlled blood pressure reduction via graded hemorrhage can be utilized while simultaneously employing LDF. This enables the real time tracking of the relative changes in the blood flow in response to reductions in arterial blood pressure produced by the withdrawal of circulating blood volume. This paradigm is a valuable approach to study cerebral blood flow autoregulation during reductions in arterial blood pressure and, with minor modifications in the protocol, is also valuable as an experimental model of hemorrhagic shock. In addition to evaluating autoregulatory responses, LDF can be used to monitor the cortical blood flow when investigating metabolic, myogenic, endothelial, humoral, or neural mechanisms that regulate cerebral blood flow and the impact of various experimental interventions and pathological conditions on cerebral blood flow.

This article demonstrates the use of laser Doppler flowmetry to evaluate the ability of the cerebral circulation to autoregulate its blood flow during reductions in arterial blood pressure.

When investigating the body&#39;s mechanisms for regulating cerebral blood flow, a relative measurement of microcirculatory blood flow can be obtained ...

Standardized Histomorphometric Evaluation of Osteoarthritis in a Surgical Mouse Model

One of the most prevalent joint disorders in the United States, osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by progressive degeneration of articular cartilage, primarily in the hip and knee joints, which results in significant impacts on patient mobility and quality of life. To date, there are no existing curative therapies for OA able to slow down or inhibit cartilage degeneration. Presently, there is an extensive body of ongoing research to understand OA pathology and discover novel therapeutic approaches or agents that can efficiently slow down, stop, or even reverse OA. Thus, it is crucial to have a quantitative and reproducible approach to accurately evaluate OA-associated pathological changes in the joint cartilage, synovium, and subchondral bone. Currently, OA severity and progression are primarily assessed using the Osteoarthritis Research Society International (OARSI) or Mankin scoring systems. In spite of the importance of these scoring systems, they are semiquantitative and can be influenced by user subjectivity. More importantly, they fail to accurately evaluate subtle, yet important, changes in the cartilage during the early disease states or early treatment phases. The protocol we describe here uses a computerized and semiautomated histomorphometric software system to establish a standardized, rigorous, and reproducible quantitative methodology for the evaluation of joint changes in OA. This protocol presents a powerful addition to the existing systems and allows for more efficient detection of pathological changes in the joint.

The current protocol establishes a rigorous and reproducible method for quantification of morphological joint changes that accompany osteoarthritis. Application of this protocol can be valuable in monitoring disease progression and evaluating therapeutic interventions in osteoarthritis.

One of the most prevalent joint disorders in the United States, osteoarthritis (OA) is characterized by progressive degeneration of articular cartilage, ...

Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy Model for Ischemic Retinal Diseases in Rodents

One of the commonly used models for ischemic retinopathies is the oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) model. Here we describe detailed protocols for the OIR model induction and its readouts in both mice and rats. Retinal neovascularization is induced in OIR by exposing rodent pups either to hyperoxia (mice) or alternating levels of hyperoxia and hypoxia (rats). The primary readouts of these models are the size of neovascular (NV) and avascular (AVA) areas in the retina. This preclinical in vivo model can be used to evaluate the efficacy of potential anti-angiogenic drugs or to address the role of specific genes in the retinal angiogenesis by using genetically manipulated animals. The model has some strain and vendor specific variation in the OIR induction which should be taken into consideration when designing the experiments.

Oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) can be used to model ischemic retinal diseases such as retinopathy of prematurity and proliferative diabetic retinopathy and to serve as a model for proof-of-concept studies in evaluating antiangiogenic drugs for neovascular diseases. OIR induces robust and reproducible neovascularization in the retina that can be quantified.

One of the commonly used models for ischemic retinopathies is the oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) model. Here we describe detailed protocols for the OIR ...

Acupuncture in a Rat Model of Asthma

A high platform can fix rats without restriction and completely expose the acupoints on the back during acupuncture manipulation. This article describes methods for the fabrication of the high platform, establishes a rat model of asthma and measures changes in respiratory function using a noninvasive and real-time whole-body plethysmography (WBP) system.

A high platform can fix rats without restriction and completely expose the acupoints on the back during acupuncture manipulation. This article describes ...

Retinal Pigment Epithelium Transplantation in a Non-human Primate Model for Degenerative Retinal Diseases

Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) transplantation holds great promise for the treatment of inherited and acquired retinal degenerative diseases. These conditions include retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and advanced forms of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), such as geographic atrophy (GA). Together, these disorders represent a significant proportion of currently untreatable blindness globally. These unmet medical needs have generated heightened academic interest in developing methods of RPE replacement. Among the animal models commonly utilized for preclinical testing of therapeutics, the non-human primate (NHP) is the only animal model that has a macula. As it shares this anatomical similarity with the human eye, the NHP eye is an important and appropriate preclinical animal model for the development of advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) such as RPE cell therapy.
This manuscript describes a method for the submacular transplantation of an RPE monolayer, cultured on a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) cell carrier, underneath the macula onto a surgically created RPE wound in immunosuppressed NHPs. The fovea-the central avascular portion of the macula-is the site of the greatest mechanical weakness during the transplantation. Foveal trauma will occur if the initial subretinal fluid injection generates an excessive force on the retina. Hence, slow injection under perfluorocarbon liquid (PFCL) vitreous tamponade is recommended with a dual-bore subretinal injection cannula at low intraocular pressure (IOP) settings to create a retinal bleb. 
Pretreatment with an intravitreal plasminogen injection to release parafoveal RPE-photoreceptor adhesions is also advised. These combined strategies can reduce the likelihood of foveal tears when compared to conventional techniques. The NHP is a key animal model in the preclinical phase of RPE cell therapy development. This protocol addresses the technical challenges associated with the delivery of RPE cellular therapy in the NHP eye.

The non-human primate (NHP) is an ideal model for studying human retinal cellular therapeutics due to the anatomical and genetic similarities. This manuscript describes a method for submacular transplantation of retinal pigment epithelial cells in the NHP eye and strategies to prevent intraoperative complications associated with macular manipulation.

Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) transplantation holds great promise for the treatment of inherited and acquired retinal degenerative diseases. These ...

Evaluation of Hepatic Glucose Production in a Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Mouse Model

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common disease that results in disorders of glucose metabolism, such as insulin resistance and glucose intolerance. Dysregulated glucose metabolism is an important manifestation of the disease and is the key to its pathogenesis. Therefore, studies involving evaluation of glucose metabolism in PCOS are of utmost importance. Very few studies have quantified hepatic glucose production directly in PCOS models using non-radioactive glucose tracers. In this study, we discuss step-by-step instructions for the quantification of the rate of hepatic glucose production in a PCOS mouse model by measuring M+2 enrichment of [6,6-2H2]glucose, a stable isotopic glucose tracer, via gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GCMS). This procedure involves creation of stable isotopic glucose tracer solution, use of tail vein catheter placement and infusion of the glucose tracer in both fasting and glucose-rich states in the same mouse in tandem. The enrichment of [6,6-2H2]glucose is measured using pentaacetate derivative in GCMS. This technique can be applied to a wide variety of studies involving direct measurement of the rate of hepatic glucose production.

This study describes the direct measurement of hepatic glucose production in a polycystic ovary syndrome mouse model by using a stable isotopic glucose tracer via tail vein in both fasting and glucose-rich states in tandem.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common disease that results in disorders of glucose metabolism, such as insulin resistance and glucose intolerance. ...