We would like to thank Greg Guitchounts for guidance with electrode design and construction and Tim Gardner for opening up his lab and facilities to us. We would like to thank Christos Michas for his assistance with PDS use at the Bio-Interface and Technology core facility and Neil Ritter, Jon Spyreas, and David Landesman for their help in designing early versions of the 16-channel jig. We would like to thank Tim Cavanaugh for his assistance with SEM imaging at the Center for Harvard Nanoscale Systems at Harvard.

<ol>
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Neuroscience. 20 (6), 330-345 (2019).</li><li>Chung, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-density,+long-lasting,+and+multi-region+electrophysiological+recordings+using+polymer+electrode+arrays.">High-density, long-lasting, and multi-region electrophysiological recordings using polymer electrode arrays.</a> Neuron. 101 (1), 21-31 (2019).</li><li>Jun, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fully+integrated+silicon+probes+for+high-density+recording+of+neural+activity.">Fully integrated silicon probes for high-density recording of neural activity.</a> Nature. 551 (7679), 232-236 (2017).</li><li>Kozai, T. D., Jaquins-Gerstl, A. S., Vazquez, A. L., Michael, A. C., Cui, X. 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D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasmall+implantable+composite+microelectrodes+with+bioactive+surfaces+for+chronic+neural+interfaces.">Ultrasmall implantable composite microelectrodes with bioactive surfaces for chronic neural interfaces.</a> Nature Materials. 11 (12), 1065-1073 (2012).</li><li>Chen, R., Canales, A., Anikeeva, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+recording+and+modulation+technologies.">Neural recording and modulation technologies.</a> Nature Reviews Materials. 2 (2), 16093 (2017).</li><li>Szostak, K. M., Grand, L., Constandinou, T. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+interfaces+for+intracortical+recording:+requirements,+fabrication+methods,+and+characteristics.">Neural interfaces for intracortical recording: requirements, fabrication methods, and characteristics.</a> Frontiers in Neuroscience. 11, 665 (2017).</li><li>Subbaroyan, J., Martin, D. C., Kipke, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+finite-element+model+of+the+mechanical+effects+of+implantable+microelectrodes+in+the+cerebral+cortex.">A finite-element model of the mechanical effects of implantable microelectrodes in the cerebral cortex.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 2 (4), 103-113 (2005).</li><li>Park, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=One-step+optogenetics+with+multifunctional+flexible+polymer+fibers.">One-step optogenetics with multifunctional flexible polymer fibers.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 20 (4), 612-619 (2017).</li><li>Guo, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymer+composite+with+carbon+nanofibers+aligned+during+thermal+drawing+as+a+microelectrode+for+chronic+neural+interfaces.">Polymer composite with carbon nanofibers aligned during thermal drawing as a microelectrode for chronic neural interfaces.</a> ACS Nano. 11 (7), 6574-6585 (2017).</li><li>Armstrong-James, M., Millar, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Carbon+fibre+microelectrodes.">Carbon fibre microelectrodes.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 1 (3), 279-287 (1979).</li><li>Garris, P. A., Ciolkowski, E. L., Pastore, P., Wightman, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efflux+of+dopamine+from+the+synaptic+cleft+in+the+nucleus+accumbens+of+the+rat+brain.">Efflux of dopamine from the synaptic cleft in the nucleus accumbens of the rat brain.</a> Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society of Neuroscience. 14 (10), 6084-6093 (1994).</li><li>Guitchounts, G., Markowitz, J. E., Liberti, W. A., Gardner, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+carbon-fiber+electrode+array+for+long-term+neural+recording.">A carbon-fiber electrode array for long-term neural recording.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 10 (4), 046016 (2013).</li><li>Guitchounts, G., Cox, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=64-channel+carbon+fiber+electrode+arrays+for+chronic+electrophysiology.">64-channel carbon fiber electrode arrays for chronic electrophysiology.</a> Scientific Reports. 10 (1), 3830 (2020).</li><li>Ma, Z., Turrigiano, G. G., Wessel, R., Hengen, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cortical+circuit+dynamics+are+homeostatically+tuned+to+criticality+in+vivo.">Cortical circuit dynamics are homeostatically tuned to criticality in vivo.</a> Neuron. 104 (4), 655-664 (2019).</li><li>Popovic, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+cross-orientation+suppression+and+size+tuning+and+the+role+of+experience.">Development of cross-orientation suppression and size tuning and the role of experience.</a> Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society of Neuroscience. 38 (11), 2656-2670 (2018).</li><li>Patel, P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+in+vivo+stability+assessment+of+carbon+fiber+microelectrode+arrays.">Chronic in vivo stability assessment of carbon fiber microelectrode arrays.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 13 (6), 066002 (2016).</li><li>Welle, E. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultra-small+carbon+fiber+electrode+recording+site+optimization+and+improved+in+vivo+chronic+recording+yield.">Ultra-small carbon fiber electrode recording site optimization and improved in vivo chronic recording yield.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 17 (2), 026037 (2020).</li><li>Patel, P. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Insertion+of+linear+8.4+&#181;m+diameter+16+channel+carbon+fiber+electrode+arrays+for+single+unit+recordings.">Insertion of linear 8.4 &#181;m diameter 16 channel carbon fiber electrode arrays for single unit recordings.</a> Journal of Neural Engineering. 12 (4), 046009 (2015).</li><li>Ferguson, J. E., Boldt, C., Redish, A. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Creating+low-impedance+tetrodes+by+electroplating+with+additives.">Creating low-impedance tetrodes by electroplating with additives.</a> Sensors and Actuators. A, Physical. 156 (2), 388-393 (2009).</li><li>Vafaiee, M., Vossoughi, M., Mohammadpour, R., Sasanpour, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gold-plated+electrode+with+high+scratch+strength+for+electrophysiological+recordings.">Gold-plated electrode with high scratch strength for electrophysiological recordings.</a> Scientific Reports. 9 (1), 2985 (2019).</li><li>Lebedev, M. A., Nicolelis, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain-machine+interfaces:+From+basic+science+to+neuroprostheses+and+neurorehabilitation.">Brain-machine interfaces: From basic science to neuroprostheses and neurorehabilitation.</a> Physiological Reviews. 97 (2), 767-837 (2017).</li></ol>

The authors declare no financial conflicts of interest.

This protocol describes each step necessary for constructing a functional CFEA for both acute and chronic use. The process described is customizable to the researcher&#39;s needs, making it an accessible and inexpensive option for monitoring single neurons over months. The protocol demonstrates the feasibility of recording both robust single-unit activity within minutes of implantation in an anesthetized animal, and across four months in an awake, behaving animal, illustrating the potential of these CFEAs to study short-term and long-term changes in neural responses.
The steps of the protocol described have been thoroughly tested and improved upon over time to yield an efficient procedure that can be completed quickly, at a low marginal cost (&#60;$100.00), with the capability of recording unambiguous single units, densely and stably over months. The construction steps can be completed in less than one day and will produce electrophysiological signals that are comparable to any leading commercial array. The CFEAs also have a much smaller footprint (16-channel bundle of fibers has a diameter of ~26 &#181;m) than similar commercial arrays, and their biocompatibility makes them suitable for long-term use13. Importantly, there are several critical steps and instructions that must be followed in order to produce a functioning CFEA with comparable performance.
Due to the fragility of the carbon fibers, they must be handled with utmost care. Handling them with sharp forceps or other tools may result in breakage of the fibers. Additionally, it is important to construct the CFEAs in a space with limited air movement so that the fibers do not blow away. When flaming the back portion of the fibers, the lighter only needs to be moved in a back-and-forth motion very briefly, for approximately 1 s. The steps following this removal of insulation are crucial for constructing an electrode with working channels. The flamed tips should be fed into the jig without any additional contact. Then, when filling the basin with dental cement, it is important that the cement is carefully applied and completely fills the channels and funnel basin, closing off the openings without filling them. The dental cement should then be completely cured with UV light before proceeding. Once this is complete, silver paint should be injected into each channel until completely filled but not spilling out. This is the most variable step in the process. Any over-filling can produce crosstalk between channels, and insufficient filling can result in a connection failure. If unable to inject silver paint using a 25 G needle, it is likely that the solution is too viscous and, in this case, a small amount of paint thinner can be added to create a more fluid solution. Once all the channels are filled, and the headstage connector is inserted, it is important to allow the array to cure for 24 h prior to securing the connector with dental cement. We found that failure to do so lowered the number of connected channels. Applying a generous amount of dental cement is also important so that the connector does not disconnect when interfacing with the signal acquisition system. If they become detached, it is possible to attempt reconnection with the repeated filling of channels with silver paint, but the user should test the impedance values of the CFEA to assess the number of connected channels. Allowing the dental cement to cure overnight also serves to prevent potential detachment.
Measuring the impedance of the electrode will provide an accurate estimation of connected channels. This can be done after submerging the ground and reference wires and the carbon fiber tips in PBS. We have observed that a high impedance (&#62;15 M&#937;) is indicative of an open, unconnected channel. Prior to injecting current and electroplating, a connected channel can have a range of impedance values that should significantly decrease with this process. The average number of connected channels (impedance &#60; 4 M&#937; after current injection) per 16-channel electrode was 12.96 &#177; 2.74 (mean &#177; SD; N = 48 electrodes). A number of electroplating times were tested, and 30 s produced superior signal isolation among the recording sites (Figure 5). While it has been well established that PEDOT-pTS12,24,25,26&#160;and PEDOT-TFB21 provide reliable options for preparing carbon fiber recording sites, we found that plating with gold, a proven and dependable method for electroplating electrodes for chronic implantation27,28, increased the ease of implantation and prevented the electrode tips from clumping together. In producing final impedance values of less than 0.2 M&#937; on average, this method proves comparable to values achieved using PEDOT-TFB21 and PEDOT-pTS26.
When implanting the microelectrode array, it is important to visually follow the insertion of the carbon fiber tips under the microscope. Successful insertion should be apparent, with no bending of the fibers. If the fibers appear to be buckling, it is unlikely that they will successfully enter the brain. In this case, the angle of the probe should be adjusted for a second attempt. This process can continue until the insertion of the probe is successful. Once the electrode is at the desired depth, we have found that waiting at least 30 min will allow the probe to settle for optimal signal acquisition (acute recordings).
The CFEAs described, in addition to their small footprint and biocompatibility, offer a robust, customizable alternative to commercial arrays due to their ease of construction and low cost. The greatest limitation to the CFEAs detailed in this protocol is their scalability. Due to the manual nature of their construction, scaling up to designs with hundreds of recording sites may not be practical. Additionally, advances in microelectrode array fabrication using nanotechnology will enable larger-scale population recordings than the methods described here. However, this protocol delivers CFEA accessibility to labs interested in benchtop fabrication of carbon fiber electrodes. We observed no loss of stability or decreased robustness in spike amplitude over the duration of the 120-day chronic experiments, as indicated by a representative single channel typical of our observations on that time scale (Figure 6A-E). Additionally, the CFEAs show the capacity for persistent single-unit activity, as four single units remained discernible 11 months after implantation in mouse (Figure 6G,H). It is also possible to obtain stable, single-unit recordings acutely (Figure 7), which offers an advantage over many other commercial electrodes for the study of single neurons over short time periods. In the future, the development of such flexible, biocompatible probes with minimal diameters will enable the study of complex processes. These tools will provide substantial utility in the advancement of neural technology, including applications in brain-machine interfaces (BMIs), which require continuous, long-term stability29.

Electrodes and electrode arrays are valuable tools for understanding how the brain processes information at the neuronal level. While electrophysiological recordings have been achievable for over two centuries1, it is still not possible to simultaneously measure the activity of entire neural circuits at the spatial and temporal resolution required to capture the spiking of individual neurons. Although non-invasive methods, such as electroencephalography2, positron emission topography3, and functional magnetic resonance imaging4 allow for whole-brain measurements, they cannot achieve the spatial and temporal resolution necessary for resolving the activity of neural circuits2,5. In contrast, imaging methods such as optical imaging using voltage-sensitive dyes or genetically encoded calcium indicators can achieve single-unit spatial resolution, but they pose issues such as low temporal resolution and poor selectivity3,4,5,6. Electrical recordings are a powerful alternative to these methods. Recording electrodes provide unparalleled temporal resolution and allow the user to make measurements with spike-time precision in any region of the brain7. Additionally, chronically implanted multielectrode arrays (MEAs) enable large-scale (tens to hundreds of cells), single-cell recordings in behaving animals over a period of days to months8,9. However, silicon probes that record at higher densities have a large footprint and are highly invasive, and chronically implanted arrays often generate an inflammation response, tissue encapsulation, and neuronal death10,11,12,13.
The limitations of existing electrodes have resulted in recent innovations that allow for stable, high-resolution, long-term recordings. Typical electrodes consist of a metallic conductor, such as tungsten or platinum-iridium, or are silicon- or polymer-based. While metal-based microwire arrays can maintain long-term, stable recordings, they have a much larger footprint, with a single wire&#39;s diameter ranging from 10-200 &#181;m14. In contrast, silicon-based electrode arrays yield recordings with high spatial resolution, but due to their relatively rigid design, they are typically unable to maintain the signal and record from the same neurons over many months15. Recent developments in silicon-based arrays have resulted in electrodes that can reliably perform chronic recordings, but these arrays cannot be used to record from deep brain regions in larger animals and are intended for linear recordings9. Advances in polymer arrays have resulted in increased flexibility and recording stability of single units and offer the potential for high-density recordings in the near future but with limited availability at present8,16,17. Carbon fibers allow for high-density recordings with off-the-shelf materials that are described here.
Carbon fiber recording microelectrodes have been used for decades, with the first carbon fiber electrodes consisting of a single carbon-fiber inserted into a glass micropipette. These microelectrodes were used for single-unit extracellular recordings, and although the signal-to-noise ratio was comparable to the best tungsten-in-glass microelectrodes, they were advantageous due to their flexibility, lower impedance values, and simplicity to manufacture18,19. Efforts to develop carbon fiber electrode arrays have recently accelerated due to the biosensing capabilities of carbon fibers. In addition to their increased biocompatibility and exceptional electrical conductivity, they feature a unique set of properties, including high-temperature resistance, low relative density, high tensile strength, low bending stiffness, high detection sensitivity, and a small cross-sectional area10,12. All of these properties have motivated the development of carbon fiber microelectrode arrays (CFEAs) that facilitate chronic, stable, high-yield recordings of single neurons. Such CFEAs can now be crafted by hand20,21&#160;(Figure 1), yielding microelectrode arrays that can hold single neurons over months. Described here is an accessible construction process for CFEAs that has been adapted in two ways for acute and chronic recordings of individual neurons in two species.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>#10 scalpel blade</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-840-15</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16-channel CFEA Jig</td>
			<td>Realize Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>CFMA component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16-channel Omnetics connector</td>
			<td>Omnetics</td>
			<td>A79014-001</td>
			<td>CFMA component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25 G needle</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-840-84</td>
			<td>Building tool - sharp-tipped</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30 G needle</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-841-03</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>31 G stainless steel 304 hypodermic round tubing</td>
			<td>Small Parts Inc</td>
			<td>B000FMYN38</td>
			<td>For guide tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>32-channel CFEA jig</td>
			<td>Realize Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>CFMA component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>32-channel Omnetics connector</td>
			<td>Omnetics</td>
			<td>A79022-001</td>
			<td>CFMA component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6 in cotton tip applicators</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22-363-156</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A16P4</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AutoCad 3D printing software</td>
			<td>Autodesk</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Computer-aided design tool/ 3D modeling software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autodesk Fusion 360</td>
			<td>Autodesk</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Computer-aided design tool/ 3D modeling software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD disposable syringes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-823-30</td>
			<td>1 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbon fibers</td>
			<td>Good Fellow USA</td>
			<td>C 005725</td>
			<td>7 &#956;m epoxy sized</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cassettes and cassette holder</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For coating fibers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clear tape</td>
			<td>Scotch</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For coating raw fibers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Electroplating component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double-sided tape</td>
			<td>Scotch</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For coating raw fibers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flowable Dental Composite</td>
			<td>Pentron</td>
			<td>Flow-It ALC</td>
			<td>CFMA component/ UV cured dental cement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gold plating solution</td>
			<td>Sifco ASC</td>
			<td>5355</td>
			<td>10.0-20.0% glycerol, 1.0-5.0% ethylenediamine, 1.0-5.0% acetic acid (ethylenedinitrilo)tetra-, dipotassium salt, 5.0-10.0% butanoic acid, mercapto-monogold(1+) sodium salt, 1.0&#8211;5.0% potassium metabisulfite, 55.0-82.0% water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Jewelry clamp</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>B00GRABH9K</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>JRClust</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Ferret spike sorting software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lighter</td>
			<td>BIC</td>
			<td>LCP62DC</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Scientifica</td>
			<td>PS-7000C</td>
			<td>For guide tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscissors</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08-953-1B</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MountainSort</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Mouse spike sorting software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NanoZ 16-channel adapter</td>
			<td>Multi-channel systems</td>
			<td>ADPT-nanoZ-NN-16</td>
			<td>Electroplating component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NanoZ 32-channel adapter</td>
			<td>White Matter</td>
			<td>NZA-OMN-32 rev A</td>
			<td>Electroplating component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NanoZ multi-electrode impedance tester</td>
			<td>White Matter</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Electroplating component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>Fisher Stockroom</td>
			<td>13-374-10</td>
			<td>Semi-transparent, flexible film with adhesive properties</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parylene &#39;C&#39; Dimer</td>
			<td>Specialty Coating Systems</td>
			<td>980130-C-01LBE</td>
			<td>For coating raw fibers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEG 8000</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>25322-68-3</td>
			<td>Electroplating component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered saline</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Electroplating component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyimide tubing</td>
			<td>MicroLumen</td>
			<td>BRAUNI001</td>
			<td>For guide tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary tool</td>
			<td>Dremel</td>
			<td>300124</td>
			<td>For guide tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel handle</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>10003-12</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silver conductive coating</td>
			<td>MG Chemicals</td>
			<td>842AR Super Shield</td>
			<td>CFMA component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereo microscope with range 6.7:1</td>
			<td>Motic</td>
			<td>SMZ-168</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sticky notes</td>
			<td>Post-it</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue wipes</td>
			<td>Kimtech Science</td>
			<td>34155</td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tungsten wire</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>797550</td>
			<td>CFMA component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV curing wand</td>
			<td>Woodpecker</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Building tool</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum deposition chamber</td>
			<td>Specialty Coating Systems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Labcoter 2 (PDS 2010)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

construction and implementation of carbon fiber microelectrode arrays for chronic and acute in vivo recordings

Multichannel electrode arrays offer insight into the working brain and serve to elucidate neural processes at the single-cell and circuit levels. Development of these tools is crucial for understanding complex behaviors and cognition and for advancing clinical applications. However, it remains a challenge to densely record from cell populations stably and continuously over long time periods. Many popular electrodes, such as tetrodes and silicon arrays, feature large cross-diameters that produce damage upon insertion and elicit chronic reactive tissue responses associated with neuronal death, hindering the recording of stable, continuous neural activity. In addition, most wire bundles exhibit broad spacing between channels, precluding simultaneous recording from a large number of cells clustered in a small area. The carbon fiber microelectrode arrays described in this protocol offer an accessible solution to these concerns. The study provides a detailed method for fabricating carbon fiber microelectrode arrays that can be used for both acute and chronic recordings in vivo. The physical properties of these electrodes make them ideal for stable and continuous long-term recordings at high cell densities, enabling the researcher to make robust, unambiguous recordings from single units across months.

With the completion of this protocol, stable recordings of single-unit spiking activity will be possible. These microelectrode arrays are customizable in material, channel count, and headstage adapter based on the researcher&#39;s needs. Electroplating fibers in gold results in decreased impedances suitable for recording (Figure 4 and Figure&#160;5). If the user intends to record chronically, measurements can be made after the animal has recovered from the surgical procedure. Chronic procedures have resulted in stable, single-unit recordings for at least 120 days. A representative recording is shown in Figure 6, illustrating stable 64-channel electrophysiological activity in the retrosplenial cortex of a freely behaving, adult male mouse. If an acute preparation is intended, recordings can begin shortly after implantation (~30 min). This will allow time for the electrode to settle in the brain. Figure 7 provides a representative example of an acute 16-channel CFEA recording acquired from the primary visual cortex of an adult female ferret. Spike sorting in mouse and ferret was performed with spike sorting software (see Table of Materials).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Anatomy of 16- and 32-channel carbon fiber microelectrode arrays (CFEAs). (A) Schematics of 32-channel (top) and 16-channel (bottom) CFEA from three different views. The 16-channel CFEA features an extended design for handling purposes. The 32-channel design features a flat face that allows for two jigs to be combined for a 64-channel CFEA. Both the diagrams have identifying structures labeled with dimensions. The connector end indicates the location of the connector insertion, and GND/REF channels indicate where the grounding wire is inserted. The funnel basin refers to the location that the fibers pass through to be overlaid with UV light-cured dental cement, and the funnel tip signifies the site from where the fibers exit the jig. The funnel tip is divided into quadrants to minimize fibers clinging together and creating damage. The fibers are later pulled into a single bundle with the use of the dental cement. Jigs are 3D printed using SLA resin printers. Diagrams are enlarged to show details. (B) Constructed CFEA. Diagram has identifying structures labeled. The blue bundle tip represents the segment of the carbon fibers that acquire recording measurements. The gray within the funnel basin and surrounding the connector is indicative of UV light-cured dental cement that holds carbon fibers in place in the funnel basin and secures the connector to the jig. The purple wire represents the grounding wire. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Loading of raw carbon fibers into cassettes for parylene C coating. (A) Carbon fibers are loaded onto cartridges overlaid with two strips of double-sided tape (blue). Each cassette is loaded with ~25 fibers. (B) Cassettes are loaded into a laser-cut holder (gray) in preparation for parylene C coating. Each holds ten cassettes. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Carbon fiber microelectrode array (CFEA) bundle construction schematic. (A) 16 individual, coated carbon fibers (black) are threaded through the 32-channel 3D-printed jig (gray). (B) Carbon fiber tips are cut with micro-scissors, leaving excess fiber equal to the height of the jig base, extending out of the jig base. (C) A standard plastic spark wheel lighter is quickly passed over the excess fiber to remove parylene C insulation. The top right schematic shows the removal of parylene from 9 of the 12 fibers. (D) Fibers are reinserted into the jig until the fiber end is flush with the base. The top-right schematic shows the reinsertion of 9 fibers with uninsulated (gray) fiber tips housed inside the jig base. The jig is then flipped over and steps A-D are repeated to thread the opposite 16 channels. (E) The jig is filled with dental cement to secure the fibers. Silver print is injected into each well of the jig base. (F) The male connector is inserted into the jig base. (G) CFEA and scalpel are frozen in a -20 &#176;C freezer. The array tip is cut to the desired length, leaving 32 even fibers. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Tip treatment and electroplating. (A) Electrode tips are first placed into 0.1 M PBS, where current is passed through each electrode. The tips are then rinsed and transferred to a gold plating solution, where they are electroplated with the current. (B) SEM images of prepared carbon fiber show gold plating solution concentrated at the tip. Scale bar represents 4 &#181;m. (C) Impedance values from 168 channels after initial cutting (purple; 3.11 M&#937; &#177; 0.42 M&#937;, median &#177; SE, n = 168 fibers), positive current injection (pink; 1.23 M&#937; &#177; 0.36 M&#937;, median &#177; SE, n = 168 fibers), and electroplating (orange; 0.19 M&#937; &#177; 0.15 M&#937;, median &#177; SE, n = 168 fibers) show decreased impedance values after each processing step. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig05.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Moderate gold electroplating durations produce small, rounded deposits on carbon fiber bundle tips. The carbon fiber tips pictured are all from different microelectrode arrays, reflecting different durations of injected current for impedance reduction or gold-plating. Images additionally depict the parylene C coating, which insulates the carbon fibers and prevents any acquisition of signal from a location other than the tips of the fibers. (A) Scanning electron microscopy image of carbon fiber tips after freezing and making a single cut with a razor blade. Scale bars represent 10 &#181;m. (B) Same as A but then followed with injection of positive current for 10 s. (C) Same as B but then electroplated with gold for 5 s. (D) Same as B but then electroplated with gold for 15 s. (E) Same as B but then electroplated with gold for 30 s. (F) Same as B but then electroplated with gold for 120 s. We found that electroplating for 30 s at a current of -0.05 &#181;A was optimal for electrophysiological recordings. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig06.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Chronic extracellular recordings in freely behaving mouse retrosplenial cortex with carbon fiber microelectrode arrays show persistent, stable neural activity. (A) Eleven&#160;bandpassed voltage traces were recorded simultaneously. Subsequent traces recorded from the first channel (top row) are plotted in B to show durability across time. The remaining ten rows demonstrate the consistency of recording quality and show robust activity across the array. Scale bar to the left of each trace represents a 200 &#181;V potential. (B) Bandpassed data from the same fiber as in the top trace in A, expanded to show robust activity across a 120-day continuous recording. (C) Clustering reveals robust single unit detection over months. Traces represent the average waveform of a continuously observable representative single unit across 120 days, extracted from the fiber plotted in B at each timepoint. (D) Mean, non-normalized spike waveforms from C stacked to demonstrate consistency over time. (E) Carbon fiber recordings demonstrate a stable noise floor over many months. Standard deviation of the noise floor (trace minus spiking activity) in B shows no progressive change in noise. Bars represent mean contamination. Error bars represent standard deviation. (F) Scale drawing of a mouse with a chronically implanted CFEA and headstage.&#160;(G) Raw voltage trace (top) 11 months after implantation shows robust LFP. Bandpassed voltage trace (bottom) shows steady neural activity. (H) Mean spike waveform of the neuron recorded on the fiber from C, underlaid by the first 1,000 incidences of spiking activity. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig07.jpg" /> 
Figure 7: Carbon fiber microelectrode array (CFEA) recordings from the ferret primary visual cortex. (A) Waveforms of spike sorted single units recorded from a 16-channel CFEA. Action potentials from single neurons were often evident on multiple channels at slightly differing amplitudes. (B) Direction tuning curves from selected neurons. Colors correspond to recorded units in A. Arrows indicate the direction of stimulus movement. Scale bars indicate the response rate. Error bars indicate the mean response with standard error. The horizontal dashed line represents the same cell&#39;s spontaneous firing rate during exposure to a blank screen. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/62760/62760fig07large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Construction and Implementation of Carbon Fiber Microelectrode Arrays for Chronic and Acute In Vivo Recordings at JoVE.com

Construction and Implementation of Carbon Fiber Microelectrode Arrays for Chronic and Acute In Vivo Recordings

This protocol describes a procedure for constructing carbon fiber microelectrode arrays for chronic and acute in vivo electrophysiological recordings in mouse (Mus musculus) and ferret (Mustela putorius furo) from multiple brain regions. Each step, following the purchase of raw carbon fibers to microelectrode array implantation, is described in detail, with emphasis on microelectrode array construction.

Construction and Implementation of Carbon Fiber Microelectrode Arrays for Chronic and Acute In Vivo Recordings

Multichannel electrode arrays offer insight into the working brain and serve to elucidate neural processes at the single-cell and circuit levels. ...

construction-implementation-carbon-fiber-microelectrode-arrays-for

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

3.7K Views.  Washington University in St. Louis. This protocol describes a procedure for constructing carbon fiber microelectrode arrays for chronic and acute in vivo electrophysiological recordings in mouse (Mus musculus) and ferret (Mustela putorius furo) from multiple brain regions. Each step, following the purchase of raw carbon fibers to microelectrode array implantation, is described in detail, with emphasis on microelectrode array construction.

Video: Construction and Implementation of Carbon Fiber Microelectrode Arrays for Chronic and Acute In Vivo Recordings

Electrophysiological Recordings from the Giant Fiber Pathway of D. melanogaster

When startled adult D. melanogaster react by jumping into the air and flying away. In many invertebrate species, including D. melanogaster, the "escape" (or "startle") response during the adult stage is mediated by the multi-component neuronal circuit called the Giant Fiber System (GFS). The comparative large size of the neurons, their distinctive morphology and simple connectivity make the GFS an attractive model system for studying neuronal circuitry. The GFS pathway is composed of two bilaterally symmetrical Giant Fiber (GF) interneurons whose axons descend from the brain along the midline into the thoracic ganglion via the cervical connective. In the mesothoracic neuromere (T2) of the ventral ganglia the GFs form electro-chemical synapses with 1) the large medial dendrite of the ipsilateral motorneuron (TTMn) which drives the tergotrochanteral muscle (TTM), the main extensor for the mesothoracic femur/leg, and 2) the contralateral peripherally synapsing interneuron (PSI) which in turn forms chemical (cholinergic) synapses with the motorneurons (DLMns) of the dorsal longitudinal muscles (DLMs), the wing depressors. The neuronal pathway(s) to the dorsovental muscles (DVMs), the wing elevators, has not yet been worked out (the DLMs and DVMs are known jointly as indirect flight muscles - they are not attached directly to the wings, but rather move the wings indirectly by distorting the nearby thoracic cuticle) (King and Wyman, 1980; Allen et al., 2006). The di-synaptic activation of the DLMs (via PSI) causes a small but important delay in the timing of the contraction of these muscles relative to the monosynaptic activation of TTM (~0.5 ms) allowing the TTMs to first extend the femur and propel the fly off the ground. The TTMs simultaneously stretch-activate the DLMs which in turn mutually stretch-activate the DVMs for the duration of the flight. The GF pathway can be activated either indirectly by applying a sensory (e.g."air-puff" or "lights-off") stimulus, or directly by a supra-threshold electrical stimulus to the brain (described here). In both cases, an action potential reaches the TTMs and DLMs solely via the GFs, PSIs, and TTM/DLM motoneurons, although the TTMns and DLMns do have other, as yet unidentified, sensory inputs. Measuring "latency response" (the time between the stimulation and muscle depolarization) and the "following to high frequency stimulation" (the number of successful responses to a certain number of high frequency stimuli) provides a way to reproducibly and quantitatively assess the functional status of the GFS components, including both central synapses (GF-TTMn, GF-PSI, PSI-DLMn) and the chemical (glutamatergic) neuromuscular junctions (TTMn-TTM and DLMn-DLM). It has been used to identify genes involved in central synapse formation and to assess CNS function.

Electrophysiological Recordings from the Giant Fiber Pathway of D. melanogaster

The Giant Fiber System is a simple neuronal circuit of adult Drosophila melanogaster containing the largest neurons in the fly. We describe the protocol for monitoring synaptic transmission through this pathway by recording post synaptic potentials in dorsal longitudinal (DLM) and tergotrochanteral (TTM) muscles following direct stimulation of the Giant Fiber interneurons.

When startled adult D. melanogaster react by jumping into the air and flying away. In many invertebrate species, including D. melanogaster, the "escape" ...

High-density EEG Recordings of the Freely Moving Mice using Polyimide-based Microelectrode

Electroencephalogram (EEG) indicates the averaged electrical activity of the neuronal populations on a large-scale level. It is widely utilized as a noninvasive brain monitoring tool in cognitive neuroscience as well as a diagnostic tool for epilepsy and sleep disorders in neurology. However, the underlying mechanism of EEG rhythm generation is still under the veil. Recently introduced polyimide-based microelectrode (PBM-array) for high resolution mouse EEG1 is one of the trials to answer the neurophysiological questions on EEG signals based on a rich genetic resource that the mouse model contains for the analysis of complex EEG generation process. This application of nanofabricated PBM-array to mouse skull is an efficient tool for collecting large-scale brain activity of transgenic mice and accommodates to identify the neural correlates to certain EEG rhythms in conjunction with behavior. However its ultra-thin thickness and bifurcated structure cause a trouble in handling and implantation of PBM-array. In the presented video, the preparation and surgery steps for the implantation of PBM-array on a mouse skull are described step by step. Handling and surgery tips to help researchers succeed in implantation are also provided.

In this article, we described the surgery procedure and handling tips for implantation of ultra-thin polyimide-based microelectrode array (PBM-array) on the mouse skull for acquisition of high-density encephalography (EEG) in a mouse model.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) indicates the averaged electrical activity of the neuronal populations on a large-scale level. It is widely utilized as a ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

Design and Assembly of an Ultra-light Motorized Microdrive for Chronic Neural Recordings in Small Animals

The ability to chronically record from populations of neurons in freely behaving animals has proven an invaluable tool for dissecting the function of neural circuits underlying a variety of natural behaviors, including navigation1 , decision making 2,3, and the generation of complex motor sequences4,5,6. Advances in precision machining has allowed for the fabrication of light-weight devices suitable for chronic recordings in small animals, such as mice and songbirds. The ability to adjust the electrode position with small remotely controlled motors has further increased the recording yield in various behavioral contexts by reducing animal handling.6,7
 Here we describe a protocol to build an ultra-light motorized microdrive for long-term chronic recordings in small animals. Our design evolved from an earlier published version7, and has been adapted for ease-of use and cost-effectiveness to be more practical and accessible to a wide array of researchers. This proven design 8,9,10,11 allows for fine, remote positioning of electrodes over a range of ~ 5 mm and weighs less than 750 mg when fully assembled. We present the complete protocol for how to build and assemble these drives, including 3D CAD drawings for all custom microdrive components.

The design, fabrication and assembly of an ultra-light motorized microdrive is described. The device provides a cost-effective and easy-to-use solution for chronic recordings of single units in small behaving animals.

The ability to chronically record from populations of neurons in freely behaving animals has proven an invaluable tool for dissecting the function of ...

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs through activation of their ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, and process information in part through activity-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Furthermore, astrocytes constitute the main uptake system for glutamate, contribute to potassium spatial buffering, as well as to GABA clearance. These cells therefore constantly monitor synaptic activity, and are thereby sensitive indicators for alterations in synaptically-released glutamate, GABA and extracellular potassium levels. Additionally, alterations in astroglial uptake activity or buffering capacity can have severe effects on neuronal functions, and might be overlooked when characterizing physiopathological situations or knockout mice. Dual recording of neuronal and astroglial activities is therefore an important method to study alterations in synaptic strength associated to concomitant changes in astroglial uptake and buffering capacities. Here we describe how to prepare hippocampal slices, how to identify stratum radiatum astrocytes, and how to record simultaneously neuronal and astroglial electrophysiological responses. Furthermore, we describe how to isolate pharmacologically the synaptically-evoked astroglial currents.

The preparation of acute brain slices from isolated hippocampi, as well as the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings of astrocytes and neurons in stratum radiatum during stimulation of schaffer collaterals is described. The pharmacological isolation of astroglial potassium and glutamate transporter currents is demonstrated.

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

Fiber-optic Implantation for Chronic Optogenetic Stimulation of Brain Tissue

Elucidating patterns of neuronal connectivity has been a challenge for both clinical and basic neuroscience. Electrophysiology has been the gold standard for analyzing patterns of synaptic connectivity, but paired electrophysiological recordings can be both cumbersome and experimentally limiting. The development of optogenetics has introduced an elegant method to stimulate neurons and circuits, both in vitro1 and in vivo2,3. By exploiting cell-type specific promoter activity to drive opsin expression in discrete neuronal populations, one can precisely stimulate genetically defined neuronal subtypes in distinct circuits4-6. Well described methods to stimulate neurons, including electrical stimulation and/or pharmacological manipulations, are often cell-type indiscriminate, invasive, and can damage surrounding tissues. These limitations could alter normal synaptic function and/or circuit behavior. In addition, due to the nature of the manipulation, the current methods are often acute and terminal. Optogenetics affords the ability to stimulate neurons in a relatively innocuous manner, and in genetically targeted neurons. The majority of studies involving in vivo optogenetics currently use a optical fiber guided through an implanted cannula6,7; however, limitations of this method include damaged brain tissue with repeated insertion of an optical fiber, and potential breakage of the fiber inside the cannula. Given the burgeoning field of optogenetics, a more reliable method of chronic stimulation is necessary to facilitate long-term studies with minimal collateral tissue damage. Here we provide our modified protocol as a video article to complement the method effectively and elegantly described in Sparta et al.8 for the fabrication of a fiber optic implant and its permanent fixation onto the cranium of anesthetized mice, as well as the assembly of the fiber optic coupler connecting the implant to a light source. The implant, connected with optical fibers to a solid-state laser, allows for an efficient method to chronically photostimulate functional neuronal circuitry with less tissue damage9 using small, detachable, tethers. Permanent fixation of the fiber optic implants provides consistent, long-term in vivo optogenetic studies of neuronal circuits in awake, behaving mice10 with minimal tissue damage.

The development of optogenetics now provides the means to precisely stimulate genetically defined neurons and circuits, both in vitro and in vivo. Here we describe the assembly and implantation of a fiber optic for chronic photostimulation of brain tissue.

Elucidating patterns of neuronal connectivity has been a challenge for both clinical and basic neuroscience. Electrophysiology has been the gold standard ...

In vivo Postnatal Electroporation and Time-lapse Imaging of Neuroblast Migration in Mouse Acute Brain Slices

The subventricular zone (SVZ) is one of the main neurogenic niches in the postnatal brain. Here, neural progenitors proliferate and give rise to neuroblasts able to move along the rostral migratory stream (RMS) towards the olfactory bulb (OB). This long-distance migration is required for the subsequent maturation of newborn neurons in the OB, but the molecular mechanisms regulating this process are still unclear. Investigating the signaling pathways controlling neuroblast motility may not only help understand a fundamental step in neurogenesis, but also have therapeutic regenerative potential, given the ability of these neuroblasts to target brain sites affected by injury, stroke, or degeneration.
In this manuscript we describe a detailed protocol for in vivo postnatal electroporation and subsequent time-lapse imaging of neuroblast migration in the mouse RMS. Postnatal electroporation can efficiently transfect SVZ progenitor cells, which in turn generate neuroblasts migrating along the RMS. Using confocal spinning disk time-lapse microscopy on acute brain slice cultures, neuroblast migration can be monitored in an environment closely resembling the in vivo condition. Moreover, neuroblast motility can be tracked and quantitatively analyzed. As an example, we describe how to use in vivo postnatal electroporation of a GFP-expressing plasmid to label and visualize neuroblasts migrating along the RMS. Electroporation of shRNA or CRE recombinase-expressing plasmids in conditional knockout mice employing the LoxP system can also be used to target genes of interest. Pharmacological manipulation of acute brain slice cultures can be performed to investigate the role of different signaling molecules in neuroblast migration. By coupling in vivo electroporation with time-lapse imaging, we hope to understand the molecular mechanisms controlling neuroblast motility and contribute to the development of novel approaches to promote brain repair.

In vivo Postnatal Electroporation and Time-lapse Imaging of Neuroblast Migration in Mouse Acute Brain Slices

Neuroblast migration is a fundamental event in postnatal neurogenesis. We describe a protocol for efficient labeling of neuroblasts by in vivo postnatal electroporation and subsequent visualization of their migration using time-lapse imaging of acute brain slices. We include a description for the quantitative analysis of neuroblast dynamics by video tracking.

The subventricular zone (SVZ) is one of the main neurogenic niches in the postnatal brain. Here, neural progenitors proliferate and give rise to ...

Acute In Vivo Electrophysiological Recordings of Local Field Potentials and Multi-unit Activity from the Hyperdirect Pathway in Anesthetized Rats

Converging evidence shows that many neuropsychiatric diseases should be understood as disorders of large-scale neuronal networks. To better understand the pathophysiological basis of these diseases, it is necessary to precisely characterize in which way the processing of information is disturbed between the different neuronal parts of the circuit. Using extracellular in vivo electrophysiological recordings, it is possible to accurately delineate neuronal activity within a neuronal network. The application of this method has several advantages over alternative techniques, e.g., functional magnetic resonance imaging and calcium imaging, as it allows a unique temporal and spatial resolution and does not rely on genetically engineered organisms. However, the use of extracellular in vivo recordings is limited since it is an invasive technique that cannot be universally applied. In this article, a simple and easy to use method is presented with which it is possible to simultaneously record extracellular potentials such as local field potentials and multiunit activity at multiple sites of a network. It is detailed how a precise targeting of subcortical nuclei can be achieved using a combination of stereotactic surgery and online analysis of multi-unit recordings. Thus, it is demonstrated, how a complete network such as the hyperdirect cortico-basal ganglia loop can be studied in anesthetized animals in vivo.

Acute In Vivo Electrophysiological Recordings of Local Field Potentials and Multi-unit Activity from the Hyperdirect Pathway in Anesthetized Rats

In this study, the methodology is presented on how to perform multi-site in vivo electrophysiological recordings from the hyperdirect pathway under urethane anesthesia.

Converging evidence shows that many neuropsychiatric diseases should be understood as disorders of large-scale neuronal networks. To better understand the ...

Recording and Modulation of Epileptiform Activity in Rodent Brain Slices Coupled to Microelectrode Arrays

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a promising approach when pharmacological treatment fails or neurosurgery is not recommended. Acute brain slices coupled to microelectrode arrays (MEAs) represent a valuable tool to study neuronal network interactions and their modulation by electrical stimulation. As compared to conventional extracellular recording techniques, they provide the added advantages of a greater number of observation points and a known inter-electrode distance, which allow studying the propagation path and speed of electrophysiological signals. However, tissue oxygenation may be greatly impaired during MEA recording, requiring a high perfusion rate, which comes at the cost of decreased signal-to-noise ratio and higher oscillations in the experimental temperature. Electrical stimulation further stresses the brain tissue, making it difficult to pursue prolonged recording/stimulation epochs. Moreover, electrical modulation of brain slice activity needs to target specific structures/pathways within the brain slice, requiring that electrode mapping be easily and quickly performed live during the experiment. Here, we illustrate how to perform the recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine (4AP)-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using planar MEAs. We show that the brain tissue obtained from mice outperforms rat brain tissue and is thus better suited for MEA experiments. This protocol guarantees the generation and maintenance of a stable epileptiform pattern that faithfully reproduces the electrophysiological features observed with conventional field potential recording, persists for several hours, and outlasts sustained electrical stimulation for prolonged epochs. Tissue viability throughout the experiment is achieved thanks to the use of a small-volume custom recording chamber allowing for laminar flow and quick solution exchange even at low (1 mL/min) perfusion rates. Quick MEA mapping for real-time monitoring and selection of stimulating electrodes is performed by a custom graphic user interface (GUI).

We illustrate how to perform recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using microelectrode arrays. A custom recording chamber maintains tissue viability throughout prolonged experimental sessions. Live electrode mapping and selection of stimulating pairs are performed by a custom graphical user interface.

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) ...

Chronic Implantation of Multiple Flexible Polymer Electrode Arrays

Simultaneous recordings from large populations of individual neurons across distributed brain regions over months to years will enable new avenues of scientific and clinical development. The use of flexible polymer electrode arrays can support long-lasting recording, but the same mechanical properties that allow for longevity of recording make multiple insertions and integration into a chronic implant a challenge. Here is a methodology by which multiple polymer electrode arrays can be targeted to a relatively spatially unconstrained set of brain areas.
The method utilizes thin-film polymer devices, selected for their biocompatibility and capability to achieve long-term and stable&#160;electrophysiologic recording interfaces. The resultant implant allows accurate and flexible targeting of anatomically distant regions, physical stability for months, and robustness to electrical noise. The methodology supports up to sixteen serially inserted devices across eight different anatomic targets. As previously demonstrated, the methodology is capable of recording from 1024 channels. Of these, the 512 channels in this demonstration used for single neuron recording yielded 375 single units distributed across six recording sites. Importantly, this method also can record single units for at least 160 days.
This implantation strategy, including temporarily bracing each device with a retractable silicon insertion shuttle, involves tethering of devices at their target depths to a skull-adhered plastic base piece that is custom-designed for each set of recording targets, and stabilization/protection of the devices within a silicone-filled, custom-designed plastic case. Also covered is the preparation of devices for implantation, and design principles that should guide adaptation to different combinations of brain areas or array designs.

Described below is a method for implantation of multiple polymer electrode arrays across anatomically distant brain regions for chronic electrophysiological recording in freely moving rats. Preparation and surgical implantation are described in detail, with emphasis on design principles to guide adaptation of these methods for use in other species.

Simultaneous recordings from large populations of individual neurons across distributed brain regions over months to years will enable new avenues of ...

Construction and Implementation of Carbon Fiber Microelectrode Arrays for Chronic and Acute In Vivo Recordings

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Recording and Modulation of Epileptiform Activity in Rodent Brain Slices Coupled to Microelectrode Arrays

Chronic Implantation of Multiple Flexible Polymer Electrode Arrays