The authors would like to acknowledge Mtra. Mariana de los Santos for her assistance with video production.

The following procedures were carried out under the oversight of The University of Texas at San Antonio&#8217;s Institutional Review Board.
NOTE: The verbal behavior SCoRE procedure is appropriate for early childhood learners with language deficits who emit topography-based or selection-based verbal behavior. Individuals beyond the early childhood age range, as well as young speakers who emit non-communicative vocalizations are excluded from this analysis.
1. Conduct a verbal operant analysis.
<ol>
	<li>Arrange tact, mand, echoic, and sequelic conditions to establish functional relations between specific environmental variables and the behavior of the speaker.</li>
	<li>The tact relation
	<ol>
		<li>To assess the tact relation, conduct a free-operant preference assessment in the natural environment29. Allow participants to engage with preferred items of his or her choosing. These items may be any manipulative toys that are common among young children (e.g., trains, dinosaurs, bubbles, etc.). At 30 s intervals, point to the item with which the child is currently engaged, and ask them to name the object. Tally the total number of items labeled by the participant and reinforce with generalized reinforcement.</li>
		<li>Remove access to that particular item and encourage the participant to engage with another stimulus. Repeat the procedures a total of 10 times to evoke up to 10 different labels from the participant.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>The mand relation
	<ol>
		<li>To assess the mand relation, conduct a paired stimulus preference assessment in a controlled setting30. Select any two of the 10 target items identified in the tact condition and offer them to the participant, asking them to, &#8220;Pick one&#8221;. Allow the participant to play with the selected item for 30 s, then remove the item by placing it out of sight and prompt for a mand. Score whether or not the participant says the name of the stimulus and reinforce with access to the preferred item.</li>
		<li>Select two more remaining target items and ask the participant to, &#8220;Pick one&#8221;. Repeat the procedures a total of 10 times to evoke up to 10 different requests from the participant.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>The echoic relation
	<ol>
		<li>To assess the echoic relation, engage the participant in a task unrelated to the any of the target items. At 30 s intervals, provide an echoic stimulus for one of the response targets identified in the above conditions. The echoic stimulus may be either the common name of the item, or the label provided by the child during the tact condition. Score whether or not the participant echoes the target response and reinforce with generalized reinforcement.</li>
		<li>Repeat the procedures a total of 10 times to evoke up to 10 different imitations from the participant.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>The sequelic relation
	<ol>
		<li>To assess the sequelic relation, engage the participant in a task unrelated to the any of the target items. At 30 s intervals, provide a fill-in-the-blank stimulus for one of the response targets identified in the above conditions. The fill-in-the-blank frame is specific to how the child played with the item during the tact condition (e.g., You roll the &#8230;). Score whether or not the participant fills in the blank with the target response and reinforce with generalized reinforcement.</li>
		<li>Repeat the procedures a total of 10 times to evoke up to 10 different replies from the participant.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Repeat all four conditions (sections 1.2&#8722;1.5) twice more, each time arranging for 10 new response targets to assess a total of 30 novel responses within each of the four conditions at the end of the verbal operant analysis (VOA). This response population provides sufficient power for further statistical analysis. 
	NOTE: Verbal operant analyses have been shown to have moderate construct validity (r2 = 0.75), strong test-retest reliability (rs = 0.97), and high inter-rater reliability (98%)31.</li>
</ol>
2. Calculate the verbal behavior stimulus control ratio equation (SCoRE).
<ol>
	<li>Sum the frequencies obtained for each verbal operant class across all three repetitions of the VOA (Table 1).</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Trials</td>
			<td>Tact</td>
			<td>Mand</td>
			<td>Echoic</td>
			<td>Sequelic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 - 10</td>
			<td>6</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>6</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>11 - 20</td>
			<td>4</td>
			<td>2</td>
			<td>10</td>
			<td>0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>21 - 30</td>
			<td>4</td>
			<td>4</td>
			<td>6</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Totals</td>
			<td>14</td>
			<td>8</td>
			<td>22</td>
			<td>4</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: The sum of responses across all three rounds of the assessment provide a sufficient response population for conducting further statistical analyses. Analyzing the variance across operants leads to an individualized prompt hierarchy for errorless language learning.
<ol start="2">
	<li>Divide the total frequency for each operant by the total frequency for all operants (Table 2).</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Operation</td>
			<td>Tact</td>
			<td>Mand</td>
			<td>Echoic</td>
			<td>Sequelic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sum</td>
			<td>14</td>
			<td>8</td>
			<td>22</td>
			<td>4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Divide</td>
			<td>48</td>
			<td>48</td>
			<td>48</td>
			<td>48</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equals</td>
			<td>0.29</td>
			<td>0.17</td>
			<td>0.46</td>
			<td>0.08</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2: The mathematical operations used to determine the relative strength of each of the four verbal operants. The number of responses for each operant is divided by the sum of responses across all operants to yield a relative value for each operant.
<ol start="3">
	<li>Multiply the relative strength obtained in step 2.2 by 100 to convert each decimal to a percentage (Figure 1), the sum of which constitutes the complete verbal repertoire (i.e., 100%).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: A model of an autistic verbal repertoire demonstrating disproportionate levels of strength across tacts (29.2%), mands (16.7%), echoics (45.8%), and sequelics (8.3%). The four operants combine to account for 100% of the environmental variables that control verbal behavior. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="4">
	<li>Compare the assessed verbal repertoire against the null repertoire, in which all four operants are equivalent at 25% apiece (Figure 2).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: A model of the null verbal repertoire demonstrating proportionate strength across all four verbal operants at 25% each. Typically developing speakers show no variation in strength across tacts, mands, echoics, and sequelics. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="5">
	<li>Divide the sum of agreements (A; the smaller of the two numbers) by the sum of agreements and disagreements (A + D; the larger of the two numbers) (Figure 3) using the equation below. The quotient is a statistic reflecting the relative strength of the speaker&#8217;s verbal repertoire at the time of the VOA. 
	<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793eq1.jpg" /></li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: A demonstration of agreement between the observed response strength and the null hypothesis. A primary assumption in the SCoRE calculation is that any overlap between the observed repertoire (a) and null repertoire (25%; b) represents agreement, while nonoverlap represents disagreement. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
3. Abstract stimulus control.
<ol>
	<li>Calculate the strength for all bivergent (mand + tact, mand + echoic, mand + sequelic, tact + echoic, tact + sequelic, echoic + sequelic) and trivergent (mand + tact + echoic, mand + tact + sequelic, mand + echoic + sequelic, tact + echoic + sequelic) sources of multiple control by summing the percentages for each individual operant.</li>
	<li>Starting with the sum of all four verbal operants, rank order the level of stimulus control from greatest to least (Table 3).</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Environmental Variable(s)</td>
			<td>Environmental Control (%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>METS</td>
			<td>100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MET</td>
			<td>91.67</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ETS</td>
			<td>83.33</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ET</td>
			<td>75</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MES</td>
			<td>70.83</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ME</td>
			<td>62.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MTS</td>
			<td>54.17</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ES</td>
			<td>54.17</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MT</td>
			<td>45.83</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E</td>
			<td>45.83</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TS</td>
			<td>37.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T</td>
			<td>29.17</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MS</td>
			<td>25</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M</td>
			<td>16.67</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>S</td>
			<td>8.33</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 3: The strength of each verbal operant is converged with one another in all possible combinations to provide a rank order of strength from greatest to least. By converging various operants we can control a greater amount of the speaker&#8217;s environment. M = mand, E = echoic, T = tact, S = sequelic.
<ol start="3">
	<li>Once the operant strength has been rank ordered across singular and multiple sources of control, extract the fading steps (Table 4) that pertain to each verbal operant while preserving the response strength hierarchy.</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Tact</td>
			<td>Mand</td>
			<td>Echoic</td>
			<td>Sequelic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>METS (100%)</td>
			<td>METS (100%)</td>
			<td>METS (100%)</td>
			<td>METS (100%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MET (91.67%)</td>
			<td>MET (91.67%)</td>
			<td>MET (91.67%)</td>
			<td>ETS (83.33%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ETS (83.33%)</td>
			<td>MES (70.83%)</td>
			<td>ETS (83.33%)</td>
			<td>MES (70.83%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ET (75.00%)</td>
			<td>ME (62.50%)</td>
			<td>ET (75.00%)</td>
			<td>MTS (54.17%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MTS (54.17%)</td>
			<td>MTS (54.17%)</td>
			<td>MES (70.83%)</td>
			<td>ES (54.17%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MT (45.83%)</td>
			<td>MT (45.83%)</td>
			<td>ME (62.50%)</td>
			<td>TS (37.50%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TS (37.50%)</td>
			<td>MS (25.00%)</td>
			<td>ES (54.17%)</td>
			<td>MS (25.00%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T (29.17%)</td>
			<td>M (16.67%)</td>
			<td>E (45.83%)</td>
			<td>S (8.33%)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 4: To condition each individual operant, mands, echoics, tacts, and sequelics are systematically converged and diverged with one another to provide a framework for most-to-least prompting. Relational flexibility is established by varying the irrelevant variables that help support each of the individual operants. M = mand, E = echoic, T = tact, S = sequelic.
<ol start="4">
	<li>Condition relational flexibility with referent-based instruction34, carefully ensuring not to omit any steps of prompt fading.
	<ol>
		<li>Converge mand, tact, echoic, and sequelic relata (100%). For example, while engaged with a ball, restrict access to the reinforcer while showing it to the participant. Provide target response followed by intraverbal frame: &#8220;You roll the ball. You roll the ____.&#8221; Reinforce correct responding with access to the ball and verbal praise.</li>
		<li>When responding is stable with simultaneous mand, echoic, tact, and sequelic control, fade to the subsequent prompt level by converging mand, tact, and echoic relata (91.7%). For example, while engaged with a ball, restrict access to the reinforcer while showing it to the participant. Provide target response: &#8220;Say, &#8216;ball.&#8217;&#8221; Reinforce correct responding with access to the ball and verbal praise.</li>
		<li>When responding is stable with simultaneous mand, echoic, and tact control, fade to the subsequent prompt level by converging mand, echoic, and sequelic relata (70.8%). For example, while engaged with a ball, hide the reinforcer and provide the target response along with an intraverbal frame: &#8220;You roll the ball. You roll the ____.&#8221; Reinforce correct responding with access to the ball and verbal praise.</li>
		<li>When responding is stable with simultaneous mand, echoic, and sequelic control, fade to the subsequent prompt level by converging mand and echoic relata (62.5%). For example, while engaged with a ball, hide the reinforcer and provide the target response: &#8220;Say, &#8216;ball.&#8217;&#8221; Reinforce correct responding with access to the ball and verbal praise.</li>
		<li>When responding is stable with simultaneous mand and echoic control, fade to the subsequent prompt level by converging mand, tact, and sequelic relata (54.2%). For example, while engaged with a ball, restrict access to the reinforcer while showing it to the participant. Provide intraverbal frame: &#8220;You roll the ____.&#8221; Reinforce correct responding with access to the ball and verbal praise.</li>
		<li>When responding is stable with simultaneous mand, tact, and sequelic control, fade to the subsequent prompt level by converging mand and tact relata (45.8%). For example, while engaged with a ball, restrict access to the reinforcer while showing it to the participant. Reinforce correct responding with access to the ball and verbal praise.</li>
		<li>When responding is stable with simultaneous mand and tact control, fade to the subsequent prompt level by converging mand and sequelic relata (25.0%). For example, while engaged with a ball, hide to the reinforcer and provide an intraverbal frame: &#8220;You roll the ____.&#8221; Reinforce correct responding with access to the ball and verbal praise.</li>
		<li>Finally, when responding is stable with simultaneous mand and sequelic control, isolate mand function (16.7%). For example, while engaged with the ball, hide the reinforcer. Reinforce correct responding with access to the specified reinforcer.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+training+intraverbal+repertoires:+Can+precision+teaching+help?.">A review of training intraverbal repertoires: Can precision teaching help?.</a> The Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 23 (1), 123-133 (2007).</li><li>Petursdottir, A. I., Carr, J. E., Lechago, S. A., Almason, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+evaluation+of+intraverbal+training+and+listener+training+for+teaching+categorization+skills.">An evaluation of intraverbal training and listener training for teaching categorization skills.</a> Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 41 (1), 53-68 (2008).</li><li>Ingvarsson, E. T., Hollobaugh, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acquisition+of+intraverbal+behavior:+teaching+children+with+autism+to+mand+for+answers+to+questions.">Acquisition of intraverbal behavior: teaching children with autism to mand for answers to questions.</a> Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 43 (1), 1-17 (2010).</li><li>Hall, G., Sundberg, M. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Teaching+mands+by+manipulating+conditioned+establishing+operations.">Teaching mands by manipulating conditioned establishing operations.</a> The Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 5 (1), 41-53 (1987).</li><li>Fryling, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+functional+independence+of+Skinner's+verbal+operants:+Conceptual+and+applied+implications.">The functional independence of Skinner's verbal operants: Conceptual and applied implications.</a> Behavioral Interventions. 32 (1), 70-78 (2017).</li><li>Michael, J., Palmer, D. C., Sundberg, M. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+multiple+control+of+verbal+behavior.">The multiple control of verbal behavior.</a> The Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 27, 3-22 (2011).</li><li>Skinner, B. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Science and human behavior. , (1953).</li><li>Roane, H. S., Vollmer, T. R., Ringdahl, J. E., Marcus, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+a+brief+preference+assessment.">Evaluation of a brief preference assessment.</a> Journal of Applied behavior Analysis. 31, 605-620 (1998).</li><li>Fisher, W. W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., Slevin, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparison+of+two+approaches+for+identifying+reinforcers+with+severe+and+profound+disabilities.">A comparison of two approaches for identifying reinforcers with severe and profound disabilities.</a> Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 25, 491-498 (1992).</li><li>Mason, L. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparison+of+outcomes+from+curriculum-based+and+experimental+analyses+of+verbal+behavior.">A comparison of outcomes from curriculum-based and experimental analyses of verbal behavior.</a> Behavioral Development. 23 (2), 118-129 (2018).</li><li>Keller, F. S., Schoenfeld, W. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Principles of psychology: A systematic text in the science of behavior. , (1950).</li><li>Lin, F. Y., Kubina, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Learning+channels+and+verbal+behavior.">Learning channels and verbal behavior.</a> The Behavior Analyst Today. 5, 1-14 (2004).</li><li>Kang, S., O&#8217;Reilly, M., Lancioni, G., Falcomata, T. S., Sigafoos, J., Xu, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+the+predictive+validity+and+consistency+among+preference+assessment+procedures:+A+review+of+the+literature.">Comparison of the predictive validity and consistency among preference assessment procedures: A review of the literature.</a> Research in Developmental Disabilities. 34, 1125-1133 (2013).</li><li>Mason, L. L., Andrews, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Referent-based+verbal+behavior+instruction+for+children+with+autism.">Referent-based verbal behavior instruction for children with autism.</a> Behavior Analysis in Practice. 7, 107-111 (2014).</li><li>Wodka, E. L., Mathy, P., Kalb, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predictors+of+phrase+and+fluent+speech+in+children+with+autism+and+severe+language+delay.">Predictors of phrase and fluent speech in children with autism and severe language delay.</a> Pediatrics. 131 (4), 1128-1134 (2013).</li><li>Hall, G. A., Chase, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+relationship+between+stimulus+equivalence+and+verbal+behavior.">The relationship between stimulus equivalence and verbal behavior.</a> The Analysis of Verbal Behavior. 9 (1), 107-119 (1991).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

It has been said that &#8220;the &#8216;meaning&#8217; for a speaker of a word or sentence is, of course, defined by the sum total of conditions under which it is emitted&#8221;32. In the natural environment, the typically developing speaker&#8217;s verbal behavior is simultaneously under multiple sources of strength. Consequently, the dysfunctional speech of individuals with autism and other verbal behavior disorders may be explained as faulty stimulus control that prohibits the convergence of environmental variables.
Functional speech is predicated on behavioral fluency across learning channels33. Typically developing speakers will respond dog in the presence of a dog as well as they will when asked what kind of pet they own. Proportionate strength over various input modalities establishes the relational flexibility of fluent language. On the other hand, a visual stimulus may have a more profound effect than an auditory stimulus on the verbal behavior of individuals with autism. The aforementioned procedures were designed to isolate controlling relations to allow for a relative comparison of verbal operant strength.
Each of the four conditions lasts approximately five minutes in duration. Within the tact condition, access to the object is not restricted, as in the mand condition; the assessor does not name the object, as in the echoic condition; and no other statements are made about the object, as in the sequelic condition.
Of critical importance to this methodology is the isolation of verbal relations during each phase of the VOA. Within the mand condition, the item is not present, as in the tact condition; the assessor does not name the object, as in the echoic condition; and no other statements are made about the object as in the sequelic condition. Notably, the type of stimulus preference assessment employed as part of the mand condition may be substituted for one more suitable to the needs of the individual participant34.
Within the echoic condition, access to the object is not restricted, as in the mand condition; the item is not present, as in the tact condition; and no other statements are made about the object, as in the sequelic condition.
Within the sequelic condition, access to the object is not restricted, as in the mand condition; the item is not present, as in the tact condition; the assessor does not name the object, as in the echoic condition.
The SCoRE assessment prescribes an individualized prompt hierarchy for conditioning proportionate response strength across mands, echoics, tacts, and sequelics. If strength is assessed for all four operants on the VOA, there will be 15 possible combinations, and fading from multiple to isolated control will consist of eight steps for each operant. If strength is assessed for three operants, there will be seven possible combinations, and fading from multiple to isolated control will consist of four steps for each of the assessed operants. If strength is assessed for two operants, there will be three possible combinations, and fading from multiple to isolated control will consist of two steps for each assessed operant. If strength is assessed for only one operant, there is only one possible combination and no fading will occur. Any operants that are not assessed with strength during the VOA may be prompted using the greatest source of multiple control, and subsequently faded using the errorless language learning procedures described above.
By measuring rates of responding against one another, the SCoRE predicts the relative control of converging variables in the natural environment. Its utility for assessing disproportionate stimulus control over the verbal behavior of children with autism has been well demonstrated35. Moreover, SCoRE has implications for idiographic progress monitoring to document the effects of verbal behavior training. Future applications of the verbal behavior SCoRE may show its utility for group comparisons, such as randomized clinical trials, for demonstrating treatment efficacy as a pre- and post-measure, and may also be used to synthesize data in meta analyses.
The primary limitation of the verbal behavior SCoRE is its restriction to participants with non-fluent verbal behavior. Approximately 30% of individuals with autism are considered nonverbal36. For this population, the SCoRE targets may be modified to assess proportionality across manded stimulus selection, motor imitation, matching to sample, and other component skills. Additionally, the verbal behavior of fluent speakers may still show disproportionate strength across levels of derivational stimulus control37. Accordingly, SCoRE targets may be modified to assess reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity.
As an alternative to the descriptive assessments generally used to measure language, the SCoRE&#8217;s experimental analysis affords the advantages of efficiency, objectivity, and quantitative precision. The SCoRE protocol can be readily implemented in a variety of settings (e.g., clinical or educational), making it ideal for use by behavior analysts, educators, and others trained in the use of functional analysis technology. As a data-based judgmental aid, the verbal behavior SCoRE offers a convenient, yet precise way of speaking about language.

Functional analyses are commonly employed as part of behavior-analytic interventions to identify the environmental variables responsible for maintaining behavioral excesses (problem behavior) and deficits (e.g., communication skills) necessary to developing appropriate and effective individualized behavior intervention plans. The functional independence of verbal operants has provided a revolutionary framework for treating autism and other language disorders1,2,3. Unlike prior attempts to analyze language as a cognitive phenomenon or structural framework, language is better described as operant behavior4, subject to the same principles of reinforcement5,6, extinction7,8, and punishment9. In doing so, six elementary verbal operants were identified, which work in various ways to extend control of the environment for the speaker.
Definitionally, the verbal behavior of a speaker is consequated by another individual as part of a social episode. Individuals who fail to develop a functional speaking repertoire are frequently diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, of which the core symptoms include persistent deficits in communication and social interaction, in addition to restricted, repetitive behavior patterns10.
Over the past 60 years, behavior-analytic researchers have primarily focused on four of these operants in remediating the communicative deficits of autism spectrum disorder: mands, tacts, echoics, and sequelics. Strengthening each of these four language skills has been shown to be foundational to developing a fluent verbal repertoire for children with autism11. Procedures such as functional communication training have found that increasing language can lead to a corresponding decrease in challenging behavior. Moreover, when compared to neurotypical speech, disproportionality between the four verbal operants is a characteristic of autistic speech patterns12,13.
Mands are verbal behavior under the control of restricted access to reinforcers. Accordingly, the speaker must demand or command access to these items. For instance, to obtain a glass of water, one may state &#8220;May I have some water?&#8221;, &#8220;Would you mind getting us something to drink?&#8221;, or &#8220;Water, now!&#8221;, all of which are consequated similarly, and therefore belong to the same operant class of manding. Research on mand training has demonstrated its use in functional communication training14, removing aversive stimuli5, and requesting information15.
Tacts are verbal behavior under the control of physical properties of the environment with which we come into contact. For instance, taking a bath, feeling a drop of rain, or smelling the ocean air may all occasion the response, &#8220;Water.&#8221; Verbal responses under the control of nonverbal stimuli are consequated similarly, and therefore belong to the same operant class of tacting. Research on tact training has demonstrated its use in labeling visual stimuli16, interoceptive feelings17, and parts of a whole18.
Echoics and sequelics are both verbal behavior in response to other verbal behavior (i.e., intraverbal). Echoics are verbal behavior that echoes the verbal stimulus. For instance, upon meeting some who says, &#8220;Hi,&#8221; the individual is more likely to reply, &#8220;Hi.&#8221; Upon meeting some who says, &#8220;Hello,&#8221; the individual is more likely to reply, &#8220;Hello&#8221;. Research on echoic training has demonstrated its use in increasing the mean length of utterance19, prosody20, and use of sign language21. Individuals with autism may demonstrate echolalia, in which scripted vocalizations are repeated after an extended latency. However, these vocalizations are not maintained by reinforcement from a listener, and therefore need not be considered verbal.
On the other hand, sequelics share no such correspondence with its precipitating verbal stimulus. For instance, to the colleague who says, &#8220;How are you today?&#8221;, the individual may reply, &#8220;Fine.&#8221; Research on sequelic training has demonstrated its use in conversational turns22, categorization23, and fill-in-the-blanks tasks24. While echoic intraverbals and sequelics intraverbals are consequated similarly, the different antecedent stimuli create distinct operant classes.
Having verified the functional distinction of the primary verbal operants25, verbal behavior interventions have primarily focused on treatments to address each individual operant. The success of each of these individual lines of research has likely perpetuated their narrow scope. However, researchers have recently begun to emphasize the importance of multiple control over verbal behavior. Interdependence among the verbal operants is requisite for developing fluent speech26. Moreover, those who fail to consider multiple controls are unlikely to demonstrate adequate explanations, prediction, and control over verbal behavior27.
The verbal behavior stimulus control ratio equation (SCoRE)12 is a procedure for quantitively synthesizing an individual&#8217;s functional speaking repertoire and yielding a statistic comparing the relative proportionality of the four primary verbal operants. The SCoRE analyzes mand, echoic, tact, and sequelics response populations in relation to one another, and allows for idiographic and nomothetic comparisons to be drawn between autistic speech patterns and those of typically developing speakers. Additionally, the SCoRE prescribes an individualized prompt hierarchy for strengthening individual operants in proportion to one another. Accordingly, &#8220;The score may be used to predict some aspect of the larger universe of behavior from which the test is drawn&#8221;28. The SCoRE also yields a metric for differentiating the repertoire strength of verbal operants across effect sizes. The goal of the SCoRE assessment is to provide a model of language deficit that: (1) pinpoints the degree to which the autistic repertoire differs from a typical speaking repertoire, (2) identifies areas of insufficient stimulus control, and (3) provides an individualized treatment plan for remediation.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>VB-MAPP Assessment Kit, without Manual</td>
			<td>Different Roads</td>
			<td>DRK 701</td>
			<td>100+ Common Objects, Language Builder, Reinforcer Kit, Counting Bears, Wooden Beads, Peg Board, Shape &#38; Form Box, Color Cubes, Block Design Cards, 3 Peg Puzzles, 4 Jigsaw Puzzles, Dressing Doll, Measuring Manipulative, Timer, Size Sort, 3 Laminated Pictures, 4 Children&#39;s Books, Writing and Art Kit, 4 Activity Workbooks, and Flashcards covering: Alphabet, Memory Matching, Shapes, Colors and Numbers, Addition, Subtraction, Community Helpers, Sight Words</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Excel</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Spreadsheet Program</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

modeling verbal behavior deficits with the stimulus control ratio equation, score

Verbal operant analyses are the extension of functional analysis technology to the field of verbal behavior, of particular relevance to autism spectrum disorders and associated developmental disabilities. Similarly, a verbal operant analysis carefully controls specific environmental factors that influence language, and measures strength of responding across four verbal operant classes: tact, mand, echoic, and sequelic. The frequency of each independent verbal operant is then measured against one another using the stimulus control ratio equation (SCoRE) to summarize the relative strength of the speaker&#8217;s repertoire. The verbal behavior SCoRE yields a statistic that can be compared against itself (e.g., for the purposes of pre/post testing) or against others (e.g., for the purposes of randomized controlled trials). The results of this evaluation provide an individualized hierarchy for diverging stimulus control across the verbal operants, from which a treatment plan for errorless language learning may be prescribed.

Figure 4 shows the results of a VOA conducted with Aron, a five-year-old Hispanic male diagnosed with ASD, prior to the onset of intervention. These data confirm the utility of the VOA for assessing disproportionate levels of verbal operant strength. Echoics were found to have the greatest strength and were emitted for half of all trials (48.4%). Tacts showed the next greatest strength with responses for 1/3 of all trials (32.3%). Mands were emitted for 1/6 of all trials (16.1%), while only one sequelic response was recorded (3.2%).
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: The observed verbal repertoire of a speaker diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Data for this model were obtained from a pretest VOA. Each of the four operants were assessed at disproportionate strength ranging from echoic (greatest) to sequelic (weakest). <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The strength of each operant was compared against the null repertoire&#8217;s proportionate strength of 25% each. For each comparison, the smaller of the two numbers represents agreement and was placed in the numerator, while the larger of the two numbers represents agreement plus disagreement and was placed in the denominator.
<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793eq2.jpg" />
By comparing the observed data against the null repertoire, Aron&#8217;s pretest SCoRE was calculated as 0.53.
In addition to summarizing the verbal repertoire, the SCoRE serves as a judgmental aid for making programmatic decisions. Table 5 shows a prompt hierarchy to support Aron&#8217;s verbal repertoire across multiple and singular control.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Controlling Variables</td>
			<td>Strength (%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E+T+S</td>
			<td>100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E+T</td>
			<td>96.8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E+T+S</td>
			<td>83.9</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E+T</td>
			<td>80.7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E+S</td>
			<td>67.7</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E</td>
			<td>64.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+T+S</td>
			<td>51.6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E+S</td>
			<td>51.6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+T</td>
			<td>48.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E</td>
			<td>48.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T+S</td>
			<td>35.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T</td>
			<td>32.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+S</td>
			<td>19.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M</td>
			<td>16.1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>S</td>
			<td>3.2</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 5: An individualized hierarchy of transference across multiple and singular sources of control derived from Figure 2. M = mand, E = echoic, T = tact, S = sequelic.
The results of Table 5 prescribe an individualized prompt hierarchy to strengthen the singular control of each verbal operant (see Table 6). By systematically programming for multiple arrangements of the target operant through converging combinations, verbal &#8220;[b]ehavior may be brought under the control of a single property or a special combination of properties of a stimulus while being freed from the control of all other properties&#8221;28.
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Mand</td>
			<td>Echoic</td>
			<td>Tact</td>
			<td>Sequelic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E+T+S</td>
			<td>M+E+T+S</td>
			<td>M+E+T+S</td>
			<td>M+E+T+S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E+T</td>
			<td>M+E+T</td>
			<td>M+E+T</td>
			<td>E+T+S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E+S</td>
			<td>E+T+S</td>
			<td>E+T+S</td>
			<td>M+E+S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+E</td>
			<td>E+T</td>
			<td>E+T</td>
			<td>M+T+S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+T+S</td>
			<td>M+E+S</td>
			<td>M+T+S</td>
			<td>E+S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+T</td>
			<td>M+E</td>
			<td>M+T</td>
			<td>T+S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M+S</td>
			<td>E+S</td>
			<td>T+S</td>
			<td>M+S</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M</td>
			<td>E</td>
			<td>T</td>
			<td>S</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 6: A systematic progression for abstracting functional independence across each of the verbal operants. M = mand, E = echoic, T = tact, S = sequelic.
After 13 weeks of referent-based instruction, a posttest VOA was conducted with Aron, using the same procedures described above. In comparison to the pretest, Figure 5 shows greater proportionality across each of the four operants: mand (27.1%), echoic (34.1%), tact (23.5%), and sequelic (15.3%). By comparing these results to the null hypothesis, Aron&#8217;s SCoRE was calculated as 0.80. A pre/post analysis of Aron&#8217;s verbal repertoire with the SCoRE shows that his language increased by 0.27 over the course of the intervention.
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: The observed verbal repertoire of a speaker diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder after 13 weeks of referent-based verbal behavior instruction. Data for this model were obtained from a posttest VOA, illustrative of increased proportionality of the four verbal operants. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/58793/58793fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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Modeling Verbal Behavior Deficits with the Stimulus Control Ratio Equation, SCoRE

This article describes the procedures for conducting a verbal operant analysis (VOA), calculating the stimulus control ratio equation (SCoRE), and developing individualized verbal behavior treatment plans, specifically significant to address the deficits characteristic of autism.

Verbal operant analyses are the extension of functional analysis technology to the field of verbal behavior, of particular relevance to autism spectrum ...

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10.4K Views.  University of Texas at San Antonio. This article describes the procedures for conducting a verbal operant analysis (VOA), calculating the stimulus control ratio equation (SCoRE), and developing individualized verbal behavior treatment plans, specifically significant to address the deficits characteristic of autism.

Video: Modeling Verbal Behavior Deficits with the Stimulus Control Ratio Equation, SCoRE

A Method for Investigating Age-related Differences in the Functional Connectivity of Cognitive Control Networks Associated with Dimensional Change Card Sort Performance

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional Change Card Sort task, participants switch from sorting cards one way, such as shape, to sorting them a different way, such as color. Adjusting behavior in this way exacts a small performance cost, or switch cost, such that responses are typically slower and more error-prone on switch trials in which the sorting rule changes as compared to repeat trials in which the sorting rule remains the same. The ability to flexibly adjust behavior is often said to develop gradually, in part because behavioral costs such as switch costs typically decrease with increasing age. Why aspects of higher-order cognition, such as behavioral flexibility, develop so gradually remains an open question. One hypothesis is that these changes occur in association with functional changes in broad-scale cognitive control networks. On this view, complex mental operations, such as switching, involve rapid interactions between several distributed brain regions, including those that update and maintain task rules, re-orient attention, and select behaviors. With development, functional connections between these regions strengthen, leading to faster and more efficient switching operations. The current video describes a method of testing this hypothesis through the collection and multivariate analysis of fMRI data from participants of different ages.

This video presents a method of examining age-related changes in functional connectivity of cognitive control networks engaged by targeted tasks/processes. The technique is based on multi-variate analysis of fMRI data.

The ability to adjust behavior to sudden changes in the environment develops gradually in childhood and adolescence. For example, in the Dimensional ...

Irrelevant Stimuli and Action Control: Analyzing the Influence of Ignored Stimuli via the Distractor-Response Binding Paradigm

Selection tasks in which simple stimuli (e.g. letters) are presented and a target stimulus has to be selected against one or more distractor stimuli are frequently used in the research on human action control. One important question in these settings is how distractor stimuli, competing with the target stimulus for a response, influence actions. The distractor-response binding paradigm can be used to investigate this influence. It is particular useful to separately analyze response retrieval and distractor inhibition effects. Computer-based experiments are used to collect the data (reaction times and error rates). In a number of sequentially presented pairs of stimulus arrays (prime-probe design), participants respond to targets while ignoring distractor stimuli. Importantly, the factors response relation in the arrays of each pair (repetition vs. change) and distractor relation (repetition vs. change) are varied orthogonally. The repetition of the same distractor then has a different effect depending on response relation (repetition vs. change) between arrays. This result pattern can be explained by response retrieval due to distractor repetition. In addition, distractor inhibition effects are indicated by a general advantage due to distractor repetition. The described paradigm has proven useful to determine relevant parameters for response retrieval effects on human action.

The distractor-response binding paradigm is described. It can be used to shed light on the influence irrelevant stimuli, competing with targets for a response, can have on human action. Both response retrieval effects and distractor inhibition effects can be analyzed within the paradigm.

Selection tasks in which simple stimuli (e.g. letters) are presented and a target stimulus has to be selected against one or more distractor stimuli are ...

Force and Position Control in Humans - The Role of Augmented Feedback

During motor behaviour, humans interact with the environment by for example manipulating objects and this is only possible because sensory feedback is constantly integrated into the central nervous system and these sensory inputs need to be weighted in order meet the task specific goals. Additional feedback presented as augmented feedback was shown to have an impact on motor control and motor learning. A number of studies investigated whether force or position feedback has an influence on motor control and neural activation. However, as in the previous studies the presentation of the force and position feedback was always identical, a recent study assessed whether not only the content but also the interpretation of the feedback has an influence on the time to fatigue of a sustained submaximal contraction and the (inhibitory) activity of the primary motor cortex using subthreshold transcranial magnetic stimulation. This paper describes one possible way to investigate the influence of the interpretation of feedback on motor behaviour by investigating the time to fatigue of submaximal sustained contractions together with the neuromuscular adaptations that can be investigated using surface EMG. Furthermore, the current protocol also describes how motor cortical (inhibitory) activity can be investigated using subthreshold TMS, a method known to act solely on the cortical level. The results show that when participants interpret the feedback as position feedback, they display a significantly shorter time to fatigue of a submaximal sustained contraction. Furthermore, subjects also displayed an increased inhibitory activity of the primary cortex when they believed to receive position feedback compared when they believed to receive force feedback. Accordingly, the results show that interpretation of feedback results in differences on a behavioural level (time to fatigue) that is also reflected in interpretation-specific differences in the amount of inhibitory M1 activity.

Controlling an identical movement with position or force feedback results in different neural activation and motor behavior. This protocol describes how to investigate behavioral changes by looking at neuromuscular fatigue and how to evaluate motor cortical (inhibitory) activity using subthreshold TMS with respect to the interpretation of augmented feedback.

During motor behaviour, humans interact with the environment by for example manipulating objects and this is only possible because sensory feedback is ...

Eye-Tracking Control to Assess Cognitive Functions in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to progressive loss of motor and speech abilities. In addition, cognitive functions are impaired in a subset of patients. To evaluate these potential deficits in severely physically impaired ALS patients, eye-tracking is a promising means to conduct cognitive tests. The present article focuses on how eye movements, an indirect means of communication for physically disabled patients, can be utilized to allow for detailed neuropsychological assessment. The requirements, in terms of oculomotor parameters that have to be met for sufficient eye-tracking in ALS patients are presented. The properties of stimuli, including type of neuropsychological tests and style of presentation, best suited to successfully assess cognitive functioning, are also described. Furthermore, recommendations regarding procedural requirements are provided. Overall, this methodology provides a reliable, easy to administer and fast approach for assessing cognitive deficits in patients who are unable to speak or write such as patients with severe ALS. The only confounding factor might be deficits in voluntary eye movement control in a subset of ALS patients.

Cognitive deficits are common in about one third of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a neurological condition leading to progressive impairments in speech and movement abilities. To conduct cognitive tests in patients unable to speak or write a reliable and easy to administer eye-tracking paradigm was developed.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to ...

Detecting Behavioral Deficits in Rats After Traumatic Brain Injury

With the increasing incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in both civilian and military populations, TBI is now considered a chronic disease; however, few studies have investigated the long-term effects of injury in rodent models of TBI. Shown here are behavioral measures that are well-established in TBI research for times early after injury, such as two weeks, until two months. Some of these methods have previously been used at later times after injury, up to one year, but by very few laboratories. The methods demonstrated here are a short neurological assessment to test reflexes, a Beam-Balance to test balance, a Beam-Walk to test balance and motor coordination, and a working memory version of the Morris water maze that can be sensitive to deficits in reference memory. Male rats were handled and pre-trained to neurological, balance, and motor coordination tests prior to receiving parasagittal fluid percussion injury (FPI) or sham injury. Rats can be tested on the short neurological assessment (neuroscore), the beam-balance, and the Beam-Walk multiple times, while testing on the water maze can only be done once. This difference is because rats can remember the task, thus confounding the results if repeated testing is attempted in the same animal. When testing from one to three days after injury, significant differences are detected in all three non-cognitive tasks. However, differences in the Beam-Walk task were not detectable at later time points (after 3 months). Deficits were detected at 3 months in the Beam-Balance and at 6 months in the neuroscore. Deficits in working memory were detected out to 12 months after injury, and a deficit in a reference memory first appeared at 12 months. Thus, standard behavioral tests can be useful measures of persistent behavioral deficits after FPI.

The goal of the behavioral tests presented here is to detect functional deficits in rats after traumatic brain injury. Four specific tests are presented that detect deficits in behaviors to reflect the damage to specific brain areas at times extending to one year after injury.

With the increasing incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in both civilian and military populations, TBI is now considered a chronic disease; however, ...

Control of Eating Behavior Using a Novel Feedback System

Subjects eat food from a plate that sits on a scale connected to a computer that records the weight loss of the plate during the meal and makes up a curve of food intake, meal duration and rate of eating modeled by a quadratic equation. The purpose of the method is to change eating behavior by providing visual feedback on the computer screen that the subject can adapt to because her/his own rate of eating appears on the screen during the meal. The data generated by the method is automatically analyzed and fitted to the quadratic equation using a custom made algorithm. The method has the advantage of recording eating behavior objectively and offers the possibility of changing eating behavior both in experiments and in clinical practice. A limitation may be that experimental subjects are affected by the method. The same limitation may be an advantage in clinical practice, as eating behavior is more easily stabilized by the method. A treatment that uses this method has normalized body weight and restored the health of several hundred patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders and has reduced the weight and improved the health of severely overweight patients.

Subjects eat food from a plate placed on a scale connected to a computer that records the weight loss of the plate during the meal. Feedback on the computer screen allows the subject to adapt her/his eating behavior to reference curves thus normalizing body weight.

Subjects eat food from a plate that sits on a scale connected to a computer that records the weight loss of the plate during the meal and makes up a curve ...

Nest Building Behavior as an Early Indicator of Behavioral Deficits in Mice

Nest building is an innate behavior in male and female rodents, even when raised in laboratory settings. As such, many researchers provide rodents synthetic and/or natural materials (such as twine, tissue, cotton, paper, and hay) as a gauge of their overall well-being and as an ancillary assessment to predict the possible decline in cognition. Typically, changes in nesting behaviors, such as failure to create a nest, indicate a change in health or welfare. In addition, nesting behavior is sensitive to many environmental and physiological challenges, as well as many genetic mutations underlying pathological disease states. The following protocol describes a nesting behavior paradigm that explores the usage of four types of nesting material. In addition, the protocol utilizes intraclass correlations to demonstrate that inter-rater reliability is higher when nests are constructed out of shredded paper compared to other common nesting materials such as cotton squares, paper twists, and soft cob bedding. The chosen methodology and statistical considerations (i.e., intraclass correlation) for this assay may be of interest for those conducting experiments assessing the quality of living of mice.&#160;

Here, we present a protocol to quantify nest building behavior in mice, which is known to be impaired in several neurological disorders and diseases. This protocol examines the utility of four materials and offers the opportunity to quantify the rater agreement in scoring, improving the validity and reliability of the assay.

Nest building is an innate behavior in male and female rodents, even when raised in laboratory settings. As such, many researchers provide rodents ...

Examining Changes in HRV and Emotion Following Artmaking with Three Different Art Materials

This protocol enables the examination of psychological and physiological responses to different types of behavioral engagements. Specifically, in this study example, the emotional response and changes in heart rate variability are examined in response to artmaking with three different art materials that vary in their levels of fluidity. This protocol can be adapted to examine other types of behavior or engagement in artmaking with other materials. There are several benefits to using this protocol. Firstly, the order randomization of the materials improves the probability that the response measured is associated with its qualities and not the order of presentation. Secondly, the continuous measuring of electrocardiogram enables the examination of changes in heart rate variability after engagement with each art material and changes that might occur during the artmaking itself. The advantages of this protocol should be considered with their limitations. The music listening is before each art making session; thus, the return to baseline can only be measured in the first two conditions. The return to baseline provides information on how fast individuals recover after response to working with each of the materials. Furthermore, a more liquid material instead of gouache paint with a brush, such as finger paints, provides more difference between materials. Finally, this protocol can be adapted to specific research needs.

The goal of the protocol is to guide researchers in conducting experiments that are intended to measure changes in self-reported emotional response and heart rate variability following art making with different materials. The protocol can easily be adapted for use in a variety of behavioral conditions and activities.

This protocol enables the examination of psychological and physiological responses to different types of behavioral engagements. Specifically, in this ...

Examining Bilingual Language Control Using the Stroop Task

The Stroop task in its many variations has been used in fields such as psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience to examine questions regarding the automaticity of reading, language processing, and cognitive control, among others. When looking at bilingual individuals, this task can be used to obtain measures of language interference and control in both a bilingual&#39;s first language (L1) and second language (L2), as well as for testing the bilingual advantage hypothesis. The Stroop task presents participants with color terms written in congruent colors (e.g., the word RED written in red font), incongruent colors (e.g., the word RED written in green font), in addition to noncolor terms for control (e.g., the word TREE presented in any color), and uses the reaction times from the different conditions to assess the degree of interference and facilitation. In the covert version of the Stroop bilingual task (i.e., participants respond by pressing a button rather than naming aloud), stimuli in the L1 and the L2 are typically presented in separate blocks. While this allows for a simple, yet effective assessment of processing and cognitive control in each language, it fails to capture any potential differences in processing and control within bilingual young adult groups. The present task combines single-language blocks with a novel mixed-language block to increase the level of difficulty of the task, thus making it suitable for testing cognitive control in young adults. Representative results showing differences between performance in the single-language vs. mixed-language blocks are presented, and the benefits of a mixed-language block are discussed.

This bilingual Stroop task uses Congruent, Incongruent, and Neutral stimuli presented in blocks in the first language (L1) only, the second language (L2) only, and a combination of L1 and L2. This task allows for an examination of language processing and cognitive control in both L1 and L2.

The Stroop task in its many variations has been used in fields such as psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience to examine questions regarding the ...

Evaluation of the Cognitive Performance of Hypertensive Patients with Silent Cerebrovascular Lesions

Evidence accumulated from the last decade has proven that silent cerebrovascular lesions (SCLs) and their underlying pathogenic processes contribute to cognitive decline in the elderly. However, the distinct effects of each type of the lesions on cognitive performance remain unclear. Moreover, research data from Chinese elderly with SCLs is scarce. In this study, 398 otherwise healthy hypertensive elderly subjects (median age 72 years) were included and assessed. All participates were required to complete a battery of structured neuropsychological assessment, including forward and backward digit span tests, symbol digit modalities test, Stroop test, verbal fluency test and Montreal Cognitive Assessment. These tests were used to assess attention, executive function, information processing speed, language, memory and visuospatial function. A multi-sequence 3T MRI scanning was arranged within one month of the neuropsychological assessment to evaluate the burden of SCLs. SCLs were rated visually. Cerebral microbleeds (CMBs) and silent lacunes (SLs) were identified as strictly lobar CMBs and SLs or deep CMBs and SLs according to their locations, respectively. Similarly, white matter hyperintensities (WMHs) were separated into periventricular WMHs (PVHs) and deep WMHs (DWMHs). A series of linear regression models were used to assess the correlation between each type of SCLs and individual cognitive function domain. The results showed that CMBs tend to impair language-related cognition. Deep SLs affect executive function, but this association disappeared after controlling for other types of SCLs. PVHs, rather than DWMHs, are associated with cognitive decline, especially in executive function and processing speed. It is concluded that different aspects of SCLs have differential impact on cognitive performance in hypertensive elderly Chinese.

Here, we present a protocol to assess whether various types of silent cerebrovascular lesions are differentially associated with deficits in certain cognitive domains in a cohort of 398 hypertensive elderly Chinese, using a combination of neuropsychological tests and multi-sequence 3T MRI scanning.

Evidence accumulated from the last decade has proven that silent cerebrovascular lesions (SCLs) and their underlying pathogenic processes contribute to ...