RJAH acknowledges support from EPSRC Fellowship EP/I004599/1, MMS acknowledges funding from EPSRC under grant number EP/K5035-4X/1.

NOTE: The experimental apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 2. The main part of the apparatus consists of a rotating platform (300 mm &#215; 300 mm) mounted on a copper cylinder (55 mm diameter) that descends under its own weight into the strong magnetic field of a superconducting magnet (1.8 T) with a room temperature vertical bore. The platform is made to rotate via an off-axis motor that turns a slip-bearing with a keyhole orifice. The copper cylinder is attached to a key-shaped drive shaft that simultaneously rotates, and descends once the holding-pin is removed.
1. Preparation of Non-standard Equipment
<ol>
	<li>Flotation boat
	<ol>
		<li>Make the size of the boat such that it fits comfortably within the experimental tank without touching the sides. 
		NOTE: The flotation boat (see Fig. 3) consists of polystyrene walls and a sponge base.</li>
		<li>Protect the sponge with a layer of strong tissue paper. 
		NOTE: The purpose of the tissue paper is to dissipate as much vertical momentum from the fluid poured into the boat as possible.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Experiment
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of liquid layers
	<ol>
		<li>Allow distilled water to come up to laboratory temperature (22 &#177; 2 &#176;C). Approximately 650 mL is required for each experimental realization. 
		NOTE: Allowing the mixture to equilibrate prevents formation of bubbles in the experiment due to exsolving air.</li>
		<li>Separate the distilled water into equal volumes in two separate containers, A and B, which will be used to prepare liquid for the dense lower layer and light upper layer respectively.</li>
		<li>Ex-situ preparation of dense lower layer. To the contents of container A:
		<ol>
			<li>Add NaCl to achieve a concentration of 0.43 mol NaCl per liter of water (approximately 25 g of NaCl per liter of water will be required);</li>
			<li>Add 0.33 g red and blue water-tracing dyes to the lower layer container (e.g., Cole-Parmer 00295-16 &#38; -18);</li>
			<li>Add 0.1 g L-1 fluorescein sodium. 
			NOTE: The lower layer will be now be opaque in appearance and have a density of approximately 1012.9 &#177; 1.2 kg m-3.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Ex-situ preparation of light upper layer. To the contents of container B:
		<ol>
			<li>Add MnCl2 salt to achieve a concentration of 0.06 mol MnCl2 per liter of water (approximately 12 g of MnCl2 per liter of water). 
			NOTE: The upper layer will be transparent in appearance and have a density of approximately 998.2 &#177; 0.5 kg m-3.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>To vary the viscosity of the fluid layers, add glycerol C3H8O3 in equal amounts to each layer until the desired viscosity is attained. Typical viscosities lie in the range 1.00 &#215; 10-3 - 21.00 &#215; 10-3 Pa s. The viscosity of each layer is the same. 
		NOTE: The mixtures may be safely stored in their separate containers until required.</li>
		<li>Ex-situ preparation of density stratification.
		<ol>
			<li>Add 300 mL of the contents of container A to the cylindrical inner tank (see Fig. 2).</li>
			<li>Immerse the flotation boat&#39;s sponge in fluid from container B. 
			NOTE: After (2.1.6.2) the procedure is time sensitive, so do not carry out any further steps until all the magnet and the lighting, recording and mechanical mechanisms are ready.</li>
			<li>Lift the flotation boat out of the container B and, when it has stopped dripping, carefully place the flotation boat on top of the layer of dense fluid in the inner cylindrical tank.</li>
			<li>Begin to add light-layer fluid from container B to the flotation boat at a flow rate of 3 mL/min. Gradually increase this flow rate as the flotation boat lifts away from the interface between the two layers. Maintain a slow enough flow rate that the interface is not disturbed by the increased momentum of the fluid flow, but fast enough that this process takes no more than 20 min. Keep filling until the upper layer contains 320 mL of fluid. 
			NOTE: The lower layer will be at a depth of approximately 33 mm, and the upper layer will be at a depth of approximately 39 mm.</li>
			<li>Carefully lower the lucite lid into the upper layer such that the layer depths of each layer are equal. Allow fluid and air to flow through the bleed holes, ensuring that no air is trapped beneath. Observe a layer (approx. 6 mm) of clear light layer liquid on top of the lucite lid. 
			NOTE: If the process has been successful there will be two layers of liquid of equal depth with a sharp interface between them. The thickness of the diffusion layer at the interface will be less than 2 mm at this stage.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Fill the outer tank with clear distilled water to a height 6 mm above the lucite lid of the inner tank. Upon observing square-on there will be no curvature-induced parallax resulting from the inner cylindrical tank. 
		NOTE: Since the liquids in each layer are continuously diffusing across the interface at this point, proceed immediately to the following steps.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Spin-up of the stratification
	<ol>
		<li>Place the experimental tank on the platform.</li>
		<li>Position the arrangement with the copper cylinder in the bore of the magnet, the drive shaft through the keyhole orifice in the track and the holding pin in position. Ensure that the tank is far away (60 cm) from the magnet such that the magnetic forces on the liquids are negligible at this position. 
		NOTE: Carrying the experimental tank containing the stratification presents few difficulties; long, low amplitude, sloshing waves set up by walking with the tank will decay away, having negligible effect on the quality of the interface achieved when floating the upper layer on.</li>
		<li>Turn on the motor, increasing the rate of rotation at 0.002 rad s-2, spinning-up the fluid to the desired rotation rate. For the rotation rates in 16 the spin-up time was of the order 20 min - 60 min. 
		NOTE: The fastest rotation rate used was 13.2 rad s-1.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Execution of Experiment
<ol>
	<li>Ensure that the magnet is indicating a field strength of 1.2 T, and that at the height at which the instability is initiated the field gradient is (grad B2)/2 = -14.3 T2 m-1, where B is the magnetic induction.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the video camera is arranged such that when the drive shaft is in its lowest position either the side view of the experiment is in focus, or a plan view is in focus through a mirror placed above the experiment.</li>
	<li>Ensure the ambient lighting is at the correct levels, such that none of the image captured by the camera is saturated, but that the full response is used (grayscale intensities in the range 0-255).</li>
	<li>Begin video recording (240 fps). Use a remote control to prevent moving the camera while operating the record function.</li>
	<li>Remove the holding pin, allowing the tank to descend, while rotating, into the magnetic field.</li>
</ol>
4. Reset Experiment
<ol>
	<li>Reset experimental rig
	<ol>
		<li>Use the remote control to stop the video recording.</li>
		<li>Save the movie file to disk.</li>
		<li>By hand, lower the voltage to the motor so that it slows to a standstill. Perform this gradually so as to prevent spillages.</li>
		<li>Remove experimental arrangement from magnet.</li>
		<li>Dispose of the mixed liquid layers appropriately (see Manganese Chloride Tetrahydrate MSDS).</li>
		<li>Rinse the tank with water (it does not need to be distilled), until all traces of salts have been washed away. Avoid direct skin contact with liquids.</li>
		<li>Dry the tank carefully with tissue paper to ensure that no residue is left that may contaminate subsequent experiments.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Image Processing
<ol>
	<li>Extract the individual images from each movie frame and save in lossless .png format. Mask out any unwanted areas of each frame, for example the platform or copper cylinder.</li>
	<li>Calculate the two-dimensional auto-correlation function16 of each image frame for 2 s after initiation of the instability using a discrete Fast Fourier Transform. Record the minimum, mean, and maximum value of the observed wavelength for the rotation rate of the experiment and the viscosity of the fluid layers.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Lewis, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+instability+of+liquid+surfaces+when+accelerated+in+a+direction+perpendicular+to+their+planes.+II.">The instability of liquid surfaces when accelerated in a direction perpendicular to their planes. II.</a> Proc. Roy. Soc., A. 202, 81-96 (1950).</li><li>Read, K. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+investigation+of+turbulent+mixing+by+Rayleigh-Taylor+instability.">Experimental investigation of turbulent mixing by Rayleigh-Taylor instability.</a> Physica D. 12, 45-58 (1984).</li><li>Dimonte, G., Schneider, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Turbulent+Rayleigh-Taylor+instability+experiments+with+variable+acceleration.">Turbulent Rayleigh-Taylor instability experiments with variable acceleration.</a> Phys. Rev. E. 54, 3740-3743 (1996).</li><li>Dalziel, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rayleigh-Taylor+instability+:+experiments+with+image+analysis.">Rayleigh-Taylor instability : experiments with image analysis.</a> Dyn. Atmos. Oceans. 20, 127-153 (1993).</li><li>Jacobs, J. W., Dalziel, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rayleigh-Taylor+instability+in+complex+stratifications.">Rayleigh-Taylor instability in complex stratifications.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 542, 251-279 (2005).</li><li>Linden, P. F., Redondo, J. M., Youngs, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+mixing+in+Rayleigh-Taylor+instability.">Molecular mixing in Rayleigh-Taylor instability.</a> J. Fluid Mech. , 97-124 (1994).</li><li>Lord Rayleigh, <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigation+of+the+Character+of+the+Equilibrium+of+an+Incompressible+Heavy+Fluid+of+Variable+Density.">Investigation of the Character of the Equilibrium of an Incompressible Heavy Fluid of Variable Density.</a> Proc. Lon. Math. Soc. 14, 170-177 (1883).</li><li>Taylor, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+instability+of+fluid+surfaces+when+accelerated+in+a+direction+perpendicular+to+their+planes.+I.">The instability of fluid surfaces when accelerated in a direction perpendicular to their planes. I.</a> Proc. Roy. Soc., A. 201, 192-196 (1950).</li><li>Limat, L., Jenffer, P., Dagens, B., Touron, E., Fermigier, M., Wesfreid, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gravitational+instabilities+of+thin+liquid+layers:+dynamics+of+pattern+selection.">Gravitational instabilities of thin liquid layers: dynamics of pattern selection.</a> Physica D. 61, 166-182 (1992).</li><li>Gelfand, J. D., Slane, P. O., Zhang, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Dynamical+Model+for+the+Evolution+of+a+Pulsar+Wind+Nebula+Inside+a+Nonradiative+Supernova+Remnant.">A Dynamical Model for the Evolution of a Pulsar Wind Nebula Inside a Nonradiative Supernova Remnant.</a> Astrophys. J. 703, 2051-2067 (2009).</li><li>Taylor, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experiments+on+the+Motion+of+Solid+Bodies+in+Rotating+Fluids.">Experiments on the Motion of Solid Bodies in Rotating Fluids.</a> Proc. Roy. Soc., A. 104, 213-218 (1923).</li><li>Proudman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+the+Motion+of+Solids+in+a+Liquid+Possessing+Vorticity.">On the Motion of Solids in a Liquid Possessing Vorticity.</a> Proc. Roy. Soc., A. 92, 408-424 (1916).</li><li>Taylor, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Motion+of+Solids+in+Fluids+when+the+Flow+is+not+lrrotational.">Motion of Solids in Fluids when the Flow is not lrrotational.</a> Proc. Roy. Soc., A. 93, 99-113 (1917).</li><li>Carl&#232;s, P., Huang, Z., Carbone, G., Rosenblatt, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rayleigh-Taylor+Instability+for+Immiscible+Fluids+of+Arbitrary+Viscosities:+A+Magnetic+Levitation+Investigation+and+Theoretical+Model.">Rayleigh-Taylor Instability for Immiscible Fluids of Arbitrary Viscosities: A Magnetic Levitation Investigation and Theoretical Model.</a> Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 104501 (2006).</li><li>Huang, Z., De Luca, A., Atherton, T. J., Bird, M., Rosenblatt, C., Carl&#232;s, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rayleigh-Taylor+Instability+Experiments+with+Precise+and+Arbitrary+Control+of+the+Initial+Interface+Shape.">Rayleigh-Taylor Instability Experiments with Precise and Arbitrary Control of the Initial Interface Shape.</a> Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 204502 (2007).</li><li>Baldwin, K. A., Scase, M. M., Hill, R. J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Inhibition+of+the+Rayleigh-Taylor+Instability+by+Rotation.">The Inhibition of the Rayleigh-Taylor Instability by Rotation.</a> Sci. Rep. 5, 11706 (2015).</li><li>Rossby, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+study+of+B&#233;nard+convection+with+and+without+rotation.">A study of B&#233;nard convection with and without rotation.</a> J. Fluid Mech. 36, 309-335 (1969).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

There are two critical steps within the protocol. The first is 2.1.6.4. If the light layer is floated on the dense layer too rapidly then irreversible mixing of the two miscible fluid layers takes place. It is essential that this is avoided and that a sharp (&#60;2 mm) interface between the two layers is achieved. The second critical step is 3.1.5. If the experiment is released toward the magnet without being fully spun-up into solid body rotation or without the visualization and image capture apparatus in position and o...

A density stratified fluid system consisting of two layers can be arranged in a gravitational field in either a stable or an unstable configuration. If the dense heavy layer underlies the less dense, light layer then the system is stable: perturbations to the interface are stable, restored by gravity, and waves may be supported on the interface. If the heavy layer overlays the light layer then the system is unstable and perturbations to the interface grow. This fundamental fluid instability is the Rayleigh-Taylor instability7,8. Exactly the same instability may be observed in non-rotating systems that are accelerated towards the heavier layer. Due to the fundamental nature of the instability it is observed in very many flows that also vary greatly in scale: from small-scale thin film phenomena9 to astrophysical scale features observed in, for example, the crab nebula10, where finger-like structures are observed, created by pulsar winds being accelerated through denser supernova remnants. It is an open question as to how the Rayleigh-Taylor instability can be controlled or influenced once the initial unstable density difference has been established at an interface. One possibility is to consider bulk rotation of the system. The purpose of the experiments is to investigate the effect of rotation on the system, and whether this may be a route to stabilization.
We consider a fluid system that consists of a two-layer gravitationally unstable stratification that is subject to steady rotation about an axis parallel to the direction of gravity. A perturbation to an unstable two-layer density stratification leads to baroclinic generation of vorticity, i.e., overturning, at the interface, tending to break-up any vertical structures. However, a rotating fluid is known to organize itself into coherent vertical structures aligned with the axis of rotation, so-called &#39;Taylor columns&#39;11. Hence the system under investigation undergoes competition between the stabilizing effect of the rotation, that is organizing the flow into vertical structures and preventing the two layers overturning, and the destabilizing effect of the denser fluid overlying the lighter fluid that generates an overturning motion at the interface. With increased rotation rate the ability of the fluid layers to move radially, with opposite sense to each other, in order to rearrange themselves into a more stable configuration, is increasingly inhibited by the Taylor-Proudman theorem12,13: the radial movement is reduced and the observed structures that materialize as the instability develops are smaller in scale. Fig. 1 shows qualitatively the effect of the rotation on the eddies that form as the instability develops. In the left hand image there is no rotation and the flow is an approximation to classical non-rotating Rayleigh-Taylor instability. In the right hand image all experimental parameters are identical to the left hand image except that the system is being rotated about a vertical axis aligned with the center of the tank. It can be seen that the effect of the rotation is to reduce the size of the eddies that are formed. This, in turn, results in an instability that develops more slowly than the non-rotating counterpart.
The magnetic effects that modify the stress tensor in the fluid may be regarded as acting in the same way as a modified gravitational field. We are therefore able to create a gravitationally stable stratification and spin it up into solid body rotation. The magnetic body forces generated by imposing the gradient magnetic field then mimic the effect of modifying the gravitational field. This renders the interface unstable such that the fluid system behaves, to a good approximation, as a classical Rayleigh-Taylor instability under rotation. This approach has been previously attempted in two dimensions without rotation14,15. For an applied gradient magnetic field with induced magnetic field B, the body force applied to a fluid of constant magnetic volume susceptibility &#967; is given by f = grad(&#967;B2/&#181;0), where B = |B| and &#181;0 = 4&#960; &#215; 10-7 N A-2 is the magnetic permeability of free-space. We may therefore consider the magnet to manipulate the effective weight of each fluid layer, where the effective weight per unit volume of a fluid of density &#961; in a gravitational field of strength g is given by &#961;g - &#967; (&#8706;B2/&#8706;z)/(2 &#181;0).

<table><tbody><tr><td>Blue water tracing dye</td><td>Cole-Parmer</td><td>00295-18</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Red water tracing dye</td><td>Cole-Parmer</td><td>00295-16</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium Chloride</td><td></td><td></td><td>&gt;99% purity</td></tr><tr><td>Manganese Chloride Tetrahydrate</td><td></td><td></td><td>See MSDS</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescein sodium salt&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Magnet</td><td>Cryogenic Ltd. London</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

magnetically induced rotating rayleigh-taylor instability

Classical techniques for investigating the Rayleigh-Taylor instability include using compressed gasses1, rocketry2 or linear electric motors3 to reverse the effective direction of gravity, and accelerate the lighter fluid toward the denser fluid. Other authorse.g. 4,5,6 have separated a gravitationally unstable stratification with a barrier that is removed to initiate the flow. However, the parabolic initial interface in the case of a rotating stratification imposes significant technical difficulties experimentally. We wish to be able to spin-up the stratification into solid-body rotation and only then initiate the flow in order to investigate the effects of rotation upon the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. The approach we have adopted here is to use the magnetic field of a superconducting magnet to manipulate the effective weight of the two liquids to initiate the flow. We create a gravitationally stable two-layer stratification using standard flotation techniques. The upper layer is less dense than the lower layer and so the system is Rayleigh-Taylor stable. This stratification is then spun-up until both layers are in solid-body rotation and a parabolic interface is observed. These experiments use fluids with low magnetic susceptibility, |&#967;| ~ 10-6 - 10-5, compared to a ferrofluids. The dominant effect of the magnetic field applies a body-force to each layer changing the effective weight. The upper layer is weakly paramagnetic while the lower layer is weakly diamagnetic. When the magnetic field is applied, the lower layer is repelled from the magnet while the upper layer is attracted towards the magnet. A Rayleigh-Taylor instability is achieved with application of a high gradient magnetic field. We further observed that increasing the dynamic viscosity of the fluid in each layer, increases the length-scale of the instability.

Fig. 4 shows the development of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability at the interface between the two fluids, for four different rotation rates: &#937; = 1.89 rad s-1 (top row), &#937; = 3.32 rad s-1, &#937; = 4.68 rad s-1, and &#937; = 8.74 rad s-1 (bottom row). The interface is shown evolving in time from t = 0 s (left hand column) with increments of 0.5 s to t = 3.0 s (right hand column). The right hand column therefore r...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Magnetically Induced Rotating Rayleigh-Taylor Instability at JoVE.com

Magnetically Induced Rotating Rayleigh-Taylor Instability

We present a protocol for preparing a two-layer density-stratified liquid that can be spun-up into solid body rotation and subsequently induced into Rayleigh-Taylor instability by applying a gradient magnetic field.

Classical techniques for investigating the Rayleigh-Taylor instability include using compressed gasses1, rocketry2 or linear electric motors3 to reverse ...

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9.4K Views.  University of Nottingham. We present a protocol for preparing a two-layer density-stratified liquid that can be spun-up into solid body rotation and subsequently induced into Rayleigh-Taylor instability by applying a gradient magnetic field.

Video: Magnetically Induced Rotating Rayleigh-Taylor Instability

Methods for Measuring the Orientation and Rotation Rate of 3D-printed Particles in Turbulence

Experimental methods are presented for measuring the rotational and translational motion of anisotropic particles in turbulent fluid flows. 3D printing technology is used to fabricate particles with slender arms connected at a common center. Shapes explored are crosses (two perpendicular rods), jacks (three perpendicular rods), triads (three rods in triangular planar symmetry), and tetrads (four arms in tetrahedral symmetry). Methods for producing on the order of 10,000 fluorescently dyed particles are described. Time-resolved measurements of their orientation and solid-body rotation rate are obtained from four synchronized videos of their motion in a turbulent flow between oscillating grids with R&#955; = 91. In this relatively low-Reynolds number flow, the advected particles are small enough that they approximate ellipsoidal tracer particles. We present results of time-resolved 3D trajectories of position and orientation of the particles as well as measurements of their rotation rates.

We use 3D printing to fabricate anisotropic particles in the shapes of jacks, crosses, tetrads, and triads, whose alignments and rotations in turbulent fluid flow can be measured from multiple simultaneous video images.

Experimental methods are presented for measuring the rotational and translational motion of anisotropic particles in turbulent fluid flows. 3D printing ...

Direct Imaging of Laser-driven Ultrafast Molecular Rotation

We present a method for visualizing laser-induced, ultrafast molecular rotational wave packet dynamics. We have developed a new 2-dimensional Coulomb explosion imaging setup in which a hitherto-impractical camera angle is realized. In our imaging technique, diatomic molecules are irradiated with a circularly polarized strong laser pulse. The ejected atomic ions are accelerated perpendicularly to the laser propagation. The ions lying in the laser polarization plane are selected through the use of a mechanical slit and imaged with a high-throughput, 2-dimensional detector installed parallel to the polarization plane. Because a circularly polarized (isotropic) Coulomb exploding pulse is used, the observed angular distribution of the ejected ions directly corresponds to the squared rotational wave function at the time of the pulse irradiation. To create a real-time movie of molecular rotation, the present imaging technique is combined with a femtosecond pump-probe optical setup in which the pump pulses create unidirectionally rotating molecular ensembles. Due to the high image throughput of our detection system, the pump-probe experimental condition can be easily optimized by monitoring a real-time snapshot. As a result, the quality of the observed movie is sufficiently high for visualizing the detailed wave nature of motion. We also note that the present technique can be implemented in existing standard ion imaging setups, offering a new camera angle or viewpoint for the molecular systems without the need for extensive modification.

We present a protocol for creating a real-time movie of a molecular rotational wave packet using a high-resolution Coulomb explosion imaging setup.

We present a method for visualizing laser-induced, ultrafast molecular rotational wave packet dynamics. We have developed a new 2-dimensional Coulomb ...

Chemistry

Magnetic Tweezers for the Measurement of Twist and Torque

Single-molecule techniques make it possible to investigate the behavior of individual biological molecules in solution in real time. These techniques include so-called force spectroscopy approaches such as atomic force microscopy, optical tweezers, flow stretching, and magnetic tweezers. Amongst these approaches, magnetic tweezers have distinguished themselves by their ability to apply torque while maintaining a constant stretching force. Here, it is illustrated how such a &#8220;conventional&#8221; magnetic tweezers experimental configuration can, through a straightforward modification of its field configuration to minimize the magnitude of the transverse field, be adapted to measure the degree of twist in a biological molecule. The resulting configuration is termed the freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers. Additionally, it is shown how further modification of the field configuration can yield a transverse field with a magnitude intermediate between that of the &#8220;conventional&#8221; magnetic tweezers and the freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers, which makes it possible to directly measure the torque stored in a biological molecule. This configuration is termed the magnetic torque tweezers. The accompanying video explains in detail how the conversion of conventional magnetic tweezers into freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers and magnetic torque tweezers can be accomplished, and demonstrates the use of these techniques. These adaptations maintain all the strengths of conventional magnetic tweezers while greatly expanding the versatility of this powerful instrument.

Magnetic tweezers, a powerful single-molecule manipulation technique, can be adapted for the direct measurements of the twist (using a configuration called freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers) and torque (using a configuration termed magnetic torque tweezers) in biological macromolecules. Guidelines for performing such measurements are given, including applications to the study of DNA and associated nucleo-protein filaments.

Single-molecule techniques make it possible to investigate the behavior of individual biological molecules in solution in real time. These techniques ...

Bioengineering

Visually Based Characterization of the Incipient Particle Motion in Regular Substrates: From Laminar to Turbulent Conditions

Two different experimental methods for determining the threshold of particle motion as a function of geometrical properties of the bed from laminar to turbulent flow conditions are presented. For that purpose, the incipient motion of a single bead is studied on regular substrates that consist of a monolayer of fixed spheres of uniform size that are regularly arranged in triangular and quadratic symmetries. The threshold is characterized by the critical Shields number. The criterion for the onset of motion is defined as the displacement from the original equilibrium position to the neighboring one. The displacement and the mode of motion are identified with an imaging system. The laminar flow is induced using a rotational rheometer with a parallel disk configuration. The shear Reynolds number remains below 1. The turbulent flow is induced in a low-speed wind tunnel with open jet test section. The air velocity is regulated with a frequency converter on the blower fan. The velocity profile is measured with a hot wire probe connected to a hot film anemometer. The shear Reynolds number ranges between 40 and 150. The logarithmic velocity law and the modified wall law presented by Rotta are used to infer the shear velocity from the experimental data. The latter is of special interest when the mobile bead is partially exposed to the turbulent flow in the so-called hydraulically transitional flow regime. The shear stress is estimated at onset of motion. Some illustrative results showing the strong impact of the angle of repose, and the exposure of the bead to shear flow are represented in both regimes.

Two different methods for characterizing the incipient particle motion of a single bead as a function of the sediment bed geometry from laminar to turbulent flow are presented.

Two different experimental methods for determining the threshold of particle motion as a function of geometrical properties of the bed from laminar to ...

Measurements of Local Instantaneous Convective Heat Transfer in a Pipe - Single and Two-phase Flow

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer coefficient as a function of the liquid flow rate in a transparent pipe. With certain amendments, the approach is extended to gas-liquid flows, with a particular emphasis on the effect of a single elongated (Taylor) air bubble on heat transfer enhancement. A non-invasive thermography technique is applied to measure the instantaneous temperature of a thin metal foil heated electrically. The foil is glued to cover a narrow slot cut in the pipe. The thermal inertia of the foil is small enough to detect the variation in the instantaneous foil temperature. The test section can be moved along the pipe and is long enough to cover a considerable part of the growing thermal boundary layer.
At the beginning of each experimental run, a steady state with a constant water flow rate and heat flux to the foil is attained and serves as the reference. The Taylor bubble is then injected into the pipe. The heat transfer coefficient variations due to the passage of a Taylor bubble propagating in a vertical pipe is measured as function of the distance of the measuring point from the bottom of the moving Taylor bubble. Thus, the results represent the local heat transfer coefficients. Multiple independent runs preformed under identical conditions allow accumulating sufficient data to calculate reliable ensemble-averaged results on the transient convective heat transfer. In order to perform this in a frame of reference moving with the bubble, the location of the bubble along the pipe has to be known at all times. Detailed description of measurements of the length and of the translational velocity of the Taylor bubbles by optical probes is presented.

This manuscript describes methods aimed at measuring the local instantaneous convective heat transfer coefficients in a single or two-phase pipe flow. A simple optical method to determine the length and the propagation velocity of an elongated (Taylor) air bubble moving at a constant velocity is also presented.

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer ...

Uncoupling Coriolis Force and Rotating Buoyancy Effects on Full-Field Heat Transfer Properties of a Rotating Channel

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that characterize the transport phenomena in a rotating channel are identified via the parametric analysis of the momentum and energy equations referring to a rotating frame of reference. Based on these dimensionless flow equations, an experimental strategy that links the design of the test module, the experimental program and the data analysis is formulated with the attempt to reveal the isolated Coriolis-force and buoyancy effects on heat transfer performances. The effects of Coriolis force and rotating buoyancy are illustrated using the selective results measured from rotating channels with various geometries. While the Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy impacts share several common features among the various rotating channels, the unique heat transfer signatures are found in association with the flow direction, the channel shape and the arrangement of heat transfer enhancement devices. Regardless of the flow configurations of the rotating channels, the presented experimental method enables the development of physically consistent heat transfer correlations that permit the evaluation of isolated and interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on the heat transfer properties of rotating channels.

Here, we present an experimental method for decoupling the interdependent Coriolis-force and rotating-buoyancy effects on full-field heat transfer distributions of a rotating channel.

An experimental method for exploring the heat transfer characteristics of an axially rotating channel is proposed. The governing flow parameters that ...

Construction and Operation of a Light-driven Gold Nanorod Rotary Motor System

The possibility to generate and measure rotation and torque at the nanoscale is of fundamental interest to the study and application of biological and artificial nanomotors and may provide new routes towards single cell analysis, studies of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, and mechanical actuation of nanoscale systems. A facile way to drive rotation is to use focused circularly polarized laser light in optical tweezers. Using this approach, metallic nanoparticles can be operated as highly efficient scattering-driven rotary motors spinning at unprecedented rotation frequencies in water.
In this protocol, we outline the construction and operation of circularly-polarized optical tweezers for nanoparticle rotation and describe the instrumentation needed for recording the Brownian dynamics and Rayleigh scattering of the trapped particle. The rotational motion and the scattering spectra provides independent information on the properties of the nanoparticle and its immediate environment. The experimental platform has proven useful as a nanoscopic gauge of viscosity and local temperature, for tracking morphological changes of nanorods and molecular coatings, and as a transducer and probe of photothermal and thermodynamic processes.

Plasmonic gold nanorods can be trapped in liquids and rotated at kHz frequencies using circularly-polarized optical tweezers. Introducing tools for Brownian dynamics analysis and light scatteringspectroscopy leads to a powerful system for research and application in numerous fields of science.

The possibility to generate and measure rotation and torque at the nanoscale is of fundamental interest to the study and application of biological and ...

Measuring Magnetically-Tuned Ferroelectric Polarization in Liquid Crystals

Materials showing coupling phenomena between magnetism and (ferro)electricity, i.e., magnetoelectric effects, have attracted a great deal of attention due to their potential applications for future device technologies such as sensors and storage. However, conventional approaches, which usually utilize materials containing magnetic metal ions (or radicals), have a major problem: only a few materials have been found to show the coupling phenomena at room temperature. Recently, we proposed a new approach to achieve room-temperature magnetoelectrics. In contrast to conventional approaches, our alternative proposal focuses on a completely different material, a &#34;liquid crystal&#34;, free from magnetic metal ions. In such liquid crystals, a magnetic field can be utilized to control the orientational state of constituent molecules and the corresponding electric polarization through magnetic anisotropy of the molecules; it is an unprecedented mechanism of the magnetoelectric effect. In this context, this paper provides a protocol to measure ferroelectric properties induced by a magnetic field, that is, the direct magnetoelectric effect, in a liquid crystal. With the method detailed here, we successfully detected magnetically-tuned electric polarization in the chiral smectic C phase of a liquid crystal at room temperature. Taken together with the flexibility of constituent molecules, which directly affects the magnetoelectric responses, the introduced method will serve to allow liquid crystal cells to acquire more functions as room-temperature magnetoelectrics and associated optical materials.

In this report, we present a protocol to examine direct magnetoelectric effects, i.e., induction of ferroelectric polarization by applying magnetic fields, in liquid crystals. This protocol provides a unique approach, supported by the softness of liquid crystals, to achieve room-temperature magnetoelectrics.

Materials showing coupling phenomena between magnetism and (ferro)electricity, i.e., magnetoelectric effects, have attracted a great deal of attention due ...

Analyzing Mixing Inhomogeneity in a Microfluidic Device by Microscale Schlieren Technique

In this paper, we introduce the use of microscale schlieren technique to measure mixing inhomogeneity in a microfluidic device. The microscale schlieren system is constructed from a Hoffman modulation contrast microscope, which provides easy access to the rear focal plane of the objective lens, by removing the slit plate and replacing the modulator with a knife-edge. The working principle of microscale schlieren technique relies on detecting light deflection caused by variation of refractive index1-3. The deflected light either escapes or is obstructed by the knife-edge to produce a bright or a dark band, respectively. If the refractive index of the mixture varies linearly with its composition, the local change in light intensity in the image plane is proportional to the concentration gradient normal to the optical axis. The micro-schlieren image gives a two-dimensional projection of the disturbed light produced by three-dimensional inhomogeneity.
To accomplish quantitative analysis, we describe a calibration procedure that mixes two fluids in a T-microchannel. We carry out a numerical simulation to obtain the concentration gradient in the T-microchannel that correlates closely with the corresponding micro-schlieren image. By comparison, a relationship between the grayscale readouts of the micro-schlieren image and the concentration gradients presented in a microfluidic device is established. Using this relationship, we are able to analyze the mixing inhomogeneity from associate micro-schlieren image and demonstrate the capability of microscale schlieren technique with measurements in a microfluidic oscillator4. For optically transparent fluids, microscale schlieren technique is an attractive diagnostic tool to provide instantaneous full-field information that retains the three-dimensional features of the mixing process.

Herein, we describe a procedure that employs microscale schlieren technique to measure mixing inhomogeneity in a microfluidic device. Through calibration, distribution of concentration gradient can be derived from the micro-schlieren image.

In this paper, we introduce the use of microscale schlieren technique to measure mixing inhomogeneity in a microfluidic device. The microscale schlieren ...

Spectral and Angle-Resolved Magneto-Optical Characterization of Photonic Nanostructures

Photonic crystals are periodic nanostructures that can support a variety of confined electromagnetic modes. Such confined modes are usually accompanied by local enhancement of electric field intensity that strengthens light-matter interactions, enabling applications such as surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and surface plasmon enhanced sensing. In the presence of magneto-optically active materials, the local field enhancement gives rise to anomalous magneto-optical activity. Typically, the confined modes of a given photonic crystal depend strongly on the wavelength and incidence angle of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Thus, spectral and angular-resolved measurements are needed to fully identify them as well as to establish their relationship with the magneto-optical activity of the crystal. In this article, we describe how to use a Fourier-plane (back focal plane) microscope to characterize magneto-optically active samples. As a model system, here we use a plasmonic grating built out of magneto-optically active Au/Co/Au multilayer. In the experiments, we apply a magnetic field on the grating in situ and measure its reciprocal space response, obtaining the magneto-optical response of the grating over a range of wavelengths and incident angles. This information enables us to build a complete map of the plasmonic band structure of the grating and the angle and wavelength dependent magneto-optical activity. These two images allow us to pinpoint the effect that the plasmon resonances have on the magneto-optical response of the grating. The relatively small magnitude of magneto-optical effects requires a careful treatment of the acquired optical signals. To this end, an image processing protocol for obtaining magneto-optical response from the acquired raw data is laid out.

Photonic band structure enables understanding how confined electromagnetic modes propagate within a photonic crystal. In photonic crystals that incorporate magnetic elements, such confined and resonant optical modes are accompanied by enhanced and modified magneto-optical activity. We describe a measurement procedure to extract the magneto-optical band structure by Fourier space microscopy.

Photonic crystals are periodic nanostructures that can support a variety of confined electromagnetic modes. Such confined modes are usually accompanied by ...