Os autores agradecem René Scriwanek pela ajuda com a preparação da Figura. FR é suportado pelo ECHO (700.59.003), ALW Programa Open (821.02.017 e 822.02.014), a cooperação DFG-NWO (DN82-303) e ZonMW VICI (016.130.606) subvenções.

1. Esferoplastos Preparação <ol><li> Incubar a levedura durante a noite a 30 ° C em 10 ml do meio apropriado determinado pela concepção da experiência. </li><li> No dia seguinte, medir a densidade óptica da cultura a 600 nm (OD600) usando um fotómetro, Diluir as células no mesmo meio de cultura para uma DO 600 de 0,2-0,4 e crescem-los a uma fase de crescimento exponencial, a menos que o desenho do experimento requer uma condição diferente. As células estão na fase exponencial quando a cultura tem uma OD 600 de 1-2. </li><li> Recolha 10 OD 600 equivalentes de células por centrifugação a 3500 xg durante 5 min num tubo de 50 ml. Após a centrifugação, desprezar o sobrenadante. </li><li> Ressuspender o sedimento de células em 5 ml de 100 mM de PIPES (pH 9,6), ditiotreitol 10 mM e incubou-se a 30 ° C durante 10 min. </li><li> Recolha de novo as células por centrifugação a 3500 xg durante 5 min. Desprezar o sobrenadante. </li><li> Ressuspender as células in 5 ml de meio (determinados pelo desenho do experimento) contendo 1 M de sorbitol e 5 mg de enzima lítica, e incubam-se a mistura a 30 ° C com agitação suave durante 30 min. </li><li> Centrifugar a suspensão de células a 300 xg durante 5 minutos para recolher a fracção de sedimento, que corresponde aos esferoplastos. Desprezar o sobrenadante. </li><li> Ressuspender os esferoplastos em 960 ul de meios de gelo frio (média determinada pelo desenho do experimento) contendo 1 M de sorbitol e transfere-se a mistura em um gelado de 2 ml tubo de microcentrífuga. </li></ol> 2. Nanogold Absorção <ol><li> Com uma pipeta, misture delicadamente o esferoplasto com 4 nmol de partículas carregadas positivamente nanogold ressuspendido em 40 mL de água. O volume final da mistura deve ser de 1 ml. </li><li> Colocar a suspensão de células obtidas em gelo durante 15 min. </li><li> Transferir a suspensão à temperatura ambiente e incubam-lo durante o tempo necessário para permitir a internalização por e nanogoldndocytosis. NOTA: A 5 min a captação vai, principalmente, para a rotulagem de vesículas de endocitose e compartimentos endossomais iniciais, enquanto a 15 min captação permitirá marcar todo o sistema endosomal (precoce e endosomes final). Tempos de incubação mais longos (mais de 30 min) também vai permitir a rotular o vacúolo. NOTA: experiências de marcação de pulso de perseguição não pode ser realizado com este método. Portanto, quando a rotulagem para a análise de LE, nanogold também serão encontrados no PM e INEE. </li></ol> 3. Fixação e Seccionamento <ol><li> Pare a absorção nanogold por adição de 1 ml de fixador força dupla [4% de paraformaldeído (PFA), 0,4% de glutaraldeído (GA) em tampão de 0,1 M PHEM (PIPES 20 mM, HEPES 50 mM, pH 6,9, EGTA 20 mM, MgCl 4 mM 2)] contendo 1 M de sorbitol à suspensão de células. Mantido o tubo à temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Inverter cuidadosamente manualmente os tubos micocentrifuge várias vezes durante 30 minutos (isto irá permitir manter os esferoplastos emsuspensão) e em seguida, centrifugar duas vezes em 1700 xg por 25 seg. </li><li> Substituir o fixador, descartando-se o sobrenadante e adicionando 1 ml de fixador fresco força padrão (2% de PFA, a 0,2% em tampão de GA PHEM 0,1 M) contendo 1 M de sorbitol e incubar durante 2 horas à temperatura ambiente em uma roda de rotação lenta. </li><li> Processar as células de crio-seccionamento, tal como descrito anteriormente 6. NOTA: Para os procedimentos de aumento de absorção nanogold e prata, o tratamento com ácido periódico descrito no protocolo indicado não tem de ser executada. O tratamento com ácido periódico é melhor permeabilizar a parede da célula 26, mas esta estrutura tem sido eliminado durante a geração de esferoplastos. </li><li> Cortar 50 criossecções delgadas Nm a -120 ° C com faca de diamante seco usando uma UCT ultramicrótomo como descrito anteriormente 8 e colocá-los em carbono Formvar revestido 50 malhas de redes de níquel. </li></ol> 4. Prata Enhancement para Nanogold Particle Visualização NOTA: O procedimento para preparar as misturas de reação é, basicamente, a indicada pelo fabricante. Adaptações práticas que utilizam este protocolo, torna o procedimento de aumento de prata eficaz e confiável em criossecções. <ol><li> Retirar o kit de melhoria de prata do congelador e descongelar em uma incubadora a 37 ° C ou banho de água. Quando descongelado, coloque o kit em uma incubadora de 24 ° C colocado em uma sala escura até a sua utilização (ver 4.7). </li><li> Colocar a placa de aquecimento na câmara escura e de aquecê-lo até a temperatura final de 24 ° C. </li><li> Cubra o topo da placa de aquecimento com o protetor de superfície, o lado brilhante para cima, e prenda-o com uma fita. </li><li> Coloque o Parafilm na Benchkote e marcam as arestas com um marcador preto para ser capaz de ver as bordas Parafilm no escuro. </li><li> Tape um termómetro no topo da Benchkote para monitorizar a temperatura da placa de aquecimento. Ajustar gradualmente a temperatura se não for 24 ° C. </li><li> Place o tubo de 50 ml com água bidestilada e do kit acessório de prata no interior. </li><li> Encha as pequenas placas de Petri com água duplamente destilada, pré-aquecido a 37 ° C. Coloque as grades na água, espécime lado de baixo, por 30 min. </li><li> Repita este passo 4.7 mais uma vez. </li><li> Transfira as grades na caixa de armazenamento e trazê-los para a sala escura. </li><li> Lavar as grelhas de novo, passando-os (com o lado da amostra para baixo) em várias gotas de água bi-destilada a 24 ° C colocados no parafilme que foi imobilizado na placa de aquecimento. </li><li> Certifique-se que nove duplas gotas de água destilada adicionais estão prontos na Parafilm, para o enxágüe após a reação aprimoramento prata. </li><li> Desligar a luz e certifique-se de que todas as luzes estão apagadas. Desligue a luz vermelha. </li><li> Retire das soluções A e B do estojo de prata reforço da incubadora 24 ° C. </li><li> Coloque primeiros seis gotas de solução A, e depois 6 gotas de solução B em um 1,5 mtubo de microcentrífuga de l, e misturar bem com uma pipeta de Pasteur de vidro evitando fazer bolhas. A solução é bastante espesso e tem que ser misturada manualmente com uma pipeta, antes de finalmente vortex brevemente. </li><li> Coloque as soluções A e B de volta na incubadora 24 ° C e retire a solução C. </li><li> Adicionar 6 gotas da solução de C para a mistura A / B. Em seguida, misture novamente em primeiro lugar com uma pipeta Pasteur e, em seguida, em vórtice, evite fazer bolhas. </li><li> Utilizar imediatamente a mistura final colocando gotas (~ 20 ul / gota) no Parafilm. </li><li> Com uma limpeza, pinças anti-magnéticos, colocar as grades na mistura (por exemplo,., Reacção prata reforço) para 6 a 15 minutos, dependendo do acessório (ou seja,. Tamanho das partículas de ouro), que pretendia ser obtido. </li><li> Retirar as grelhas a partir da mistura e passa-os no topo da água bi-destilada, gotas, a 24 ° C durante as lavagens. Em primeiro lugar, usar em rápida sucessão 6 gotas e, em seguida, 3 gotas com 7 min tempo de incubação por gota, Antes de virar as luzes acesas. </li><li> Vá para a próxima etapa, ou rotulagem imuno-ouro ou coloração da membrana 27, a fim de visualizar o resultado de uma investigação EM. </li></ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Imuno-microscopia de electrões é uma técnica que permite a combinação de localização de proteínas com a resolução ultra-estrutural das transportadoras e organelos onde estas proteínas residem. Isto é particularmente importante quando se estuda o sistema de levedura endosomal porque seus compartimentos aparecem como estruturas pontuar em microscopia de fluorescência. Por isso, é difícil distingui-los. Por esta razão, o uso de uma sonda detectável por EM e entrar na rota endocítica numa forma dependente ...

O sistema endossomal é um grande aparelho de separação de membrana, que desempenha várias funções celulares importantes incluindo o tráfico de enzima lisossomal receptores de triagem e a reciclagem de membrana plasmática (PM) de receptores de 1,2. Endossomos são divididos em três compartimentos diferentes, isto é,. os primeiros endossomas (EE), os endossomas tardios (LE) e os endossomas de reciclagem. Esta classificação baseia-se o tempo que leva para o material de endocitose para os alcançar, em proteínas marcadoras específicas e à sua morfologia. Membranas, ou seja, proteínas e lipídios bicamadas, internalizadas do PM pode ser entregue a lisossomos via endossomos para a degradação ou ser reciclado. As membranas são também transportadas para os endossomas de Golgi e da mesma forma, ou continuar a lisossomas ou ser recuperado de volta para o Golgi. Além disso, as proteínas podem ser classificados em vesículas luminais brotamento para dentro a partir da limitação da membrana endossomal, um processo que leva à formação deuma subcategoria de LE, os corpos multivesiculares. O sistema endossomal levedura é relativamente menos complexo do que o de células eucarióticas elevados. Endosomes fúngicas são divididas em EE e LE. Em contraste com células de mamíferos que não contêm endossomas de reciclagem, mas também organelas relacionadas com lisossoma específicos de tecidos. Conseqüentemente, eles têm uma rede menos complexo de rotas de tráfico endossomais 3,4. Portanto levedura representou e ainda representa um sistema experimental vantajoso para estudar alguns dos princípios tráfego membrana subjacente no sistema endosomal. Esta vantagem é realçada pelo facto de que numerosos genes envolvidos nas vias endossomais foram inicialmente isolado com telas genéticas na levedura 5. Enquanto o sistema endossomal levedura no tipo selvagem e mutantes de células tem sido extensamente estudada utilizando abordagens bioquímicas e de microscopia de fluorescência, a investigação ao nível ultra-estrutural tem sido somentemínima. As análises morfológicas são particularmente relevantes na levedura, porque a maioria das organelas endossomais são detectados como estruturas pontuar por microscopia de fluorescência, o que torna difícil a sua identificação inequívoca 6. Infelizmente, apenas um número limitado de anti-soros reconhecer marcadores de proteína de levedura endossomais está trabalhando em imuno-elétron-microscópio (IEM) preparações 7-10. Para algumas proteínas, este problema tem sido contornado pela marcação endógena do gene de interesse e a utilização de um anticorpo que reconhece a marca para detectar 7,11,12. Muitas vezes, no entanto, as proteínas são indetectáveis ​​pelo IEM por causa dos seus baixos níveis de expressão. Sua superexpressão não é uma solução porque esta abordagem pode induzir mal-localizações e / ou alterações nas organelas de morfologia / funções. Assim, a rotulagem dos compartimentos endocíticas com uma sonda detectável por microscopia eletrônica de EM é uma opção eficaz. Esta é uma solução óptima, especialmente se o probe está a entrar no percurso de endocitose de uma maneira dependente do tempo, o que permite saber quando se vai marcar um organelo específico 6. A absorção de nanogold carregado positivamente por esferoplastos de levedura (ou seja. Levedura em que a parede celular foi removida enzimaticamente) tem sido utilizado com sucesso para identificar o endossomal levedura compartimentos 10. Estas partículas ligam-se fortemente com os lípidos carregados negativamente que compõem as membranas biológicas. Assim, os associados nanogold carregados positivamente com o PM, penetra na célula por endocitose, e passa através do EE e LE antes de atingir o vacúolo. Estas pequenas partículas de ouro, no entanto, não têm um tamanho adequado para ser visto por EM. Para torná-los visíveis, seu tamanho pode ser ampliada por meio de reações químicas que levam à deposição de prata ou de ouro ao redor da sonda ouro 13-15. Nós desenvolvemos e aplicado com sucesso uma abordagem IEM com base no método de realizar Tokuyasu subcelularlocalização estuda 8,16. Este método permite realizar imunomarcação em preparações de levedura com uma excelente resolução da morfologia 8,17-24. Temos também estabeleceu um procedimento que combina este protocolo IEM com a rotulagem nanogold do sistema de levedura endosomal compartimentos 6. Usando essa abordagem, temos caracterizados morfologicamente diferentes subclasses de endosomes e ultraestruturalmente examinado mutantes com um tráfico endosomal defeito 6,25. Além disso, foi demonstrado que esta rotulagem nanogold pode ser combinado com rotulamentos imunomarcação proporcionando a possibilidade de explorar a distribuição de uma proteína de interesse nas diferentes subpopulações de endossoma. Aqui apresentamos como a rotulagem do sistema de levedura endosomal com nanogold carga positiva está praticamente realizado.

<table><tbody><tr><td>PIPES (piperazin-1,4-bis (2-ethansulfensaure)</td><td>Merck, Darmstadt, Germany</td><td>1,102,200,250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEPES</td><td>Merck, Darmstadt, Germany</td><td>391,340</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EGTA</td><td>Sigma, St louis, MO</td><td>E4378</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MgCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;middot;6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O</td><td>Merck, Darmstadt, Germany</td><td>1,058,330,250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DL-Dithiothreitol</td><td>Sigma, St louis, MO</td><td>D0632</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sorbitol</td><td>Sigma, St louis, MO</td><td>S1876</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Positively charged Nanogold</td><td>Nanoprobes, Yaphank, NY</td><td>2022</td><td>store at -20 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>HQ-silver&amp;trade; enhancement kit</td><td>Nanoprobes, Yaphank, NY</td><td>2012</td><td>store at -20 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde (PFA)</td><td>Sigma, St louis, MO</td><td>441244</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glutaraldehyde 8% EM grade</td><td>Polyscience, Inc., Warrington, PA</td><td>216</td><td>store at -20 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Lytic enzyme</td><td>MP Biomedicals, Santa Ana, CA</td><td>153526</td><td>store at -20 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Parafilm M</td><td>Sigma, St louis, MO</td><td>P7793</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50 meshes nickel grids&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Agar Scientific, Stansted, United Kingdom</td><td>G209N</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cryo-immuno diamond knife 35&amp;deg;</td><td>Diatome AG, Biel, Switzerland</td><td>N.A.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>UCT ultramicrotome&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Leica, Solms, Germany</td><td>N.A.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Formvar 15/95 resine</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA</td><td>15800</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50 meshes nickel grids&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Agar Scientific, Stansted, United Kingdom</td><td>AGG2050N</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Parafilm</td><td>Sigma, St louis, MO</td><td>P7793</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Grids storage box</td><td>Leica, Solms, Germany</td><td>162-50</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Falcon 100 mm x 15 mm Petri dish</td><td>Corning, Corning, NY</td><td>351029</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pasteur capillary pipettes 150 mm</td><td>Van Bruggen Glas, Rotterdam, The Netherlands</td><td>10216234</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1.5 ml microcentrifuge&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sarstedt, N&amp;uuml;mbrecht, Germany</td><td>72690001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50 ml tube</td><td>Bio-one, Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands</td><td>210296</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Benchkote surface protector</td><td>Whatman, Maidstone, United Kingdom&amp;nbsp;</td><td>1159201</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

nanogold labeling of the yeast endosomal system for ultrastructural analyses

Endossomos são um dos principais membrana triagem checkpoints em células eucarióticas e que regulam a reciclagem ou destruição de proteínas principalmente a partir da membrana plasmática e do Golgi. Como resultado, o sistema endossomal desempenha um papel central na manutenção da homeostase celular, e mutações em genes pertencentes a esta rede de organelos interligadas por transporte vesicular, causar patologias graves, incluindo o cancro e desordens neurobiológicos. Por isso, é de relevância primordial para compreender os mecanismos subjacentes à biogênese e organização do sistema endosomal. A levedura Saccharomyces cerevisiae tem sido fundamental nessa tarefa. Para identificar e analisar especificamente em nível ultra-estrutural do sistema endosomal deste organismo modelo, apresentamos aqui um protocolo detalhado para a captação nanogold carregada positivamente por esferoplastos seguido pela visualização dessas partículas através de uma reação aprimoramento prata. Este método também é muito valiosol para o exame morfológico de mutantes com defeitos de tráfico endosomal. Além disso, não é aplicável apenas para exames ultraestruturais, mas também pode ser combinado com rotulamentos imunomarcação para investigações de localização de proteínas.

De acordo com o protocolo apresentado, a morfologia do sistema de levedura do endossoma podem ser acesso por EM transmissão. Figura 1 mostra diferentes tipos de compartimentos endossomais que foram alcançados e, por conseguinte, rotulados com nanogold. O nanogold reforçada-prata pode ser visto claramente como electrões partículas densas. As configurações óptimas estabelecidas para a reacção de reforço prata permite que possui partículas de ouro numa gama de tamanho homogéneo entre 5 e 15 nm...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Nanogold Labeling of the Yeast Endosomal System for Ultrastructural Analyses at JoVE.com

Nanogold Labeling of the Yeast Endosomal System for Ultrastructural Analyses

A levedura Saccharomyces cerevisiae, tem sido um organismo chave modelo para identificar e estudar genes que regulam a biogênese e funções do sistema endosomal. Aqui apresentamos um protocolo detalhado para a rotulagem específica dos compartimentos endossomais para estudos ultra-estruturais.

Nanogold Labeling do Sistema de levedura Endossomal de Análises ultraestruturais

Endosomes are one of the major membrane sorting checkpoints in eukaryotic cells and they regulate recycling or destruction of proteins mostly from the ...

nanogold-labeling-yeast-endosomal-system-for-ultrastructural

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

10.2K visualizações.  University Medical Center Utrecht.  A levedura Saccharomyces cerevisiae, tem sido um organismo chave modelo para identificar e estudar genes que regulam a biogênese e funções do sistema endosomal. Aqui apresentamos um protocolo detalhado para a rotulagem específica dos compartimentos endossomais para estudos ultra-estruturais. 

Vídeo: Nanogold Labeling of the Yeast Endosomal System for Ultrastructural Analyses

A high-throughput method to globally study the organelle morphology in S. cerevisiae

High-throughput methods to examine protein localization or organelle morphology is an effective tool for studying protein interactions and can help achieve an comprehensive understanding of molecular pathways. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, with the development of the non-essential gene deletion array, we can globally study the morphology of different organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the mitochondria using GFP (or variant)-markers in different gene backgrounds. However, incorporating GFP markers in each single mutant individually is a labor-intensive process. Here, we describe a procedure that is routinely used in our laboratory. By using a robotic system to handle high-density yeast arrays and drug selection techniques, we can significantly shorten the time required and improve reproducibility. In brief, we cross a GFP-tagged mitochondrial marker (Apc1-GFP) to a high-density array of 4,672 nonessential gene deletion mutants by robotic replica pinning.  Through diploid selection, sporulation, germination and dual marker selection, we recover both alleles. As a result, each haploid single mutant contains Apc1-GFP incorporated at its genomic locus. Now, we can study the morphology of mitochondria in all non-essential mutant background. Using this high-throughput approach, we can conveniently study and delineate the pathways and genes involved in the inheritance and the formation of organelles in a genome-wide setting.

GFP-fusion proteins are widely used to visualize organelles by confocal microscopy. However, screening for mutations that affect the morphology of organelles generally requires individual mutagenesis and is time consuming. Here, we demonstrate a method to simultaneously incorporate organelle-GFP markers in almost 5,000 non-essential genes in yeast.

Um método de alto rendimento para estudar a morfologia global organela em S. cerevisiae

High-throughput methods to examine protein localization or organelle morphology is an effective tool for studying protein interactions and can help ...

Biologia

Post-embedding Immunogold Labeling of Synaptic Proteins in Hippocampal Slice Cultures

Immunoelectron microscopy is a powerful tool to study biological molecules at the subcellular level. Antibodies coupled to electron-dense markers such as colloidal gold can reveal the localization and distribution of specific antigens in various tissues1. The two most widely used techniques are pre-embedding and post-embedding techniques. In pre-embedding immunogold-electron microscopy (EM) techniques, the tissue must be permeabilized to allow antibody penetration before it is embedded. These techniques are ideal for preserving structures but poor penetration of the antibody (often only the first few micrometers) is a considerable drawback2. The post-embedding labeling methods can avoid this problem because labeling takes place on sections of fixed tissues where antigens are more easily accessible. Over the years, a number of modifications have improved the post-embedding methods to enhance immunoreactivity and to preserve ultrastructure3-5.
Tissue fixation is a crucial part of EM studies. Fixatives chemically crosslink the macromolecules to lock the tissue structures in place. The choice of fixative affects not only structural preservation but also antigenicity and contrast. Osmium tetroxide (OsO4), formaldehyde, and glutaraldehyde have been the standard fixatives for decades, including for central nervous system (CNS) tissues that are especially prone to structural damage during chemical and physical processing. Unfortunately, OsO4 is highly reactive and has been shown to mask antigens6, resulting in poor and insufficient labeling. Alternative approaches to avoid chemical fixation include freezing the tissues. But these techniques are difficult to perform and require expensive instrumentation. To address some of these problems and to improve CNS tissue labeling, Phend et al. replaced OsO4 with uranyl acetate (UA) and tannic acid (TA), and successfully introduced additional modifications to improve the sensitivity of antigen detection and structural preservation in brain and spinal cord tissues7. We have adopted this osmium-free post-embedding method to rat brain tissue and optimized the immunogold labeling technique to detect and study synaptic proteins.
We present here a method to determine the ultrastructural localization of synaptic proteins in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. We use organotypic hippocampal cultured slices. These slices maintain the trisynaptic circuitry of the hippocampus, and thus are especially useful for studying synaptic plasticity, a mechanism widely thought to underlie learning and memory. Organotypic hippocampal slices from postnatal day 5 and 6 mouse/rat pups can be prepared as described previously8, and are especially useful to acutely knockdown or overexpress exogenous proteins. We have previously used this protocol to characterize neurogranin (Ng), a neuron-specific protein with a critical role in regulating synaptic function8,9 . We have also used it to characterize the ultrastructural localization of calmodulin (CaM) and Ca2+/CaM-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)10. As illustrated in the results, this protocol allows good ultrastructural preservation of dendritic spines and efficient labeling of Ng to help characterize its distribution in the spine8. Furthermore, the procedure described here can have wide applicability in studying many other proteins involved in neuronal functions.

The localization and distribution of proteins provide important information for understanding their cellular functions. The superior spatial resolution of electron microscopy (EM) can be used to determine the subcellular localization of a given antigen following immunohistochemistry. For tissues of the central nervous system (CNS), preserving structural integrity while maintaining antigenicity has been especially difficult in EM studies. Here, we adopt a procedure that has been used to preserve structures and antigens in the CNS to study and characterize synaptic proteins in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons.

Pós-incorporação de Etiquetagem immunogold de proteínas sinápticas em culturas de hipocampo

Immunoelectron microscopy is a powerful tool to study biological molecules at the subcellular level. Antibodies coupled to electron-dense markers such as ...

Neurociência

Application of Fluorescent Nanoparticles to Study Remodeling of the Endo-lysosomal System by Intracellular Bacteria

Fluorescent nanoparticles (NPs) with desirable chemical, optical and mechanical properties are promising tools to label intracellular organelles. Here, we introduce a method using gold-BSA-rhodamine NPs to label the endo-lysosomal system of eukaryotic cells and monitor manipulations of host cellular pathways by the intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica. The NPs were readily internalized by HeLa cells and localized in late endosomes/lysosomes. Salmonella infection induced rearrangement of the vesicles and accumulation of NPs in Salmonella-induced membrane structures. We deployed the Imaris software package for quantitative analyses of confocal microscopy images. The number of objects and their size distribution in non-infected cells were distinct from the ones in Salmonella-infected cells, indicating extremely remodeling of the endo-lysosomal system by WT Salmonella.

This article describes methods for the synthesis and fluorescent labeling of nanoparticles (NPs). The NPs were applied in pulse-chase experiments to label the endo-lysosomal system of eukaryotic cells. Manipulation of the endo-lysosomal system by activities of the intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica were followed by live cell imaging and quantified.

Aplicação de nanopartículas fluorescentes para estudar Reformas do Sistema Endo-lysosomal por bactérias intracelulares

Fluorescent nanoparticles (NPs) with desirable chemical, optical and mechanical properties are promising tools to label intracellular organelles. Here, we ...

Imunologia e Infecção

Labelling and Visualization of Mitochondrial Genome Expression Products in Baker's Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Mitochondria are essential organelles of eukaryotic cells capable of aerobic respiration. They contain circular genome and gene expression apparatus. A mitochondrial genome of baker&#8217;s yeast encodes eight proteins: three subunits of the cytochrome c oxidase (Cox1p, Cox2p, and Cox3p), three subunits of the ATP synthase (Atp6p, Atp8p, and Atp9p), a subunit of the ubiquinol-cytochrome c oxidoreductase enzyme, cytochrome b (Cytb), and mitochondrial ribosomal protein Var1p. The purpose of the method described here is to specifically label these proteins with 35S methionine, separate them by electrophoresis and visualize the signals as discrete bands on the screen. The procedure involves several steps. First, yeast cells are cultured in a galactose-containing medium until they reach the late logarithmic growth stage. Next, cycloheximide treatment blocks cytoplasmic translation and allows 35S methionine incorporation only in mitochondrial translation products. Then, all proteins are extracted from yeast cells and separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Finally, the gel is dried and incubated with the storage phosphor screen. The screen is scanned on a phosphorimager revealing the bands. The method can be applied to compare the biosynthesis rate of a single polypeptide in the mitochondria of a mutant yeast strain versus the wild type, which is useful for studying mitochondrial gene expression defects. This protocol gives valuable information about the translation rate of all yeast mitochondrial mRNAs. However, it requires several controls and additional experiments to make proper conclusions.

Labelling and Visualization of Mitochondrial Genome Expression Products in Baker's Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Baker&#8217;s yeast mitochondrial genome encodes eight polypeptides. The goal of the current protocol is to label all of them and subsequently visualize them as separate bands.

Rotulagem e Visualização de Produtos de Expressão do Genoma Mitocondrial no Saccharomyces cerevisiae de Levedura de Baker

Mitochondria are essential organelles of eukaryotic cells capable of aerobic respiration. They contain circular genome and gene expression apparatus. A ...

Bioquímica

Visualizing Yeast Organelles with Fluorescent Protein Markers

The budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a classic model system in studying organelle function and dynamics. In our previous works, we have constructed fluorescent protein-based markers for major organelles and endomembrane structures, including the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, endosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, peroxisomes, lipid droplets, and autophagosomes. The protocol presented here describes the procedures for using these markers in yeast, including DNA preparation for yeast transformation, selection and evaluation of transformants, fluorescent microscopic observation, and the expected outcomes. The text is geared toward researchers who are entering the field of yeast organelle study from other backgrounds. Essential steps are covered, as well as technical notes about microscope hardware considerations and several common pitfalls. It provides a starting point for people to observe yeast subcellular entities by live-cell fluorescent microscopy. These tools and methods can be used to identify protein subcellular localization and track organelles of interest in time-lapse imaging.

Here we describe the use of a set of fluorescent protein-based organelle markers in live-cell imaging of the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a classic model system in studying organelle function and dynamics. In our previous works, we have ...

A Fluorescence Microscopy Assay for Monitoring Mitophagy in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Autophagy is important for turnover of cellular components under a range of different conditions. It serves an essential homeostatic function as well as a quality control mechanism that can target and selectively degrade cellular material including organelles1-4. For example, damaged or redundant mitochondria (Fig. 1), not disposed of by autophagy, can represent a threat to cellular homeostasis and cell survival. In the yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, nutrient deprivation (e.g., nitrogen starvation) or damage can promote selective turnover of mitochondria by autophagy in a process termed mitophagy 5-9.
We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy approach to assess autophagy. For clarity we restrict our description here to show how the approach can be used to monitor mitophagy in yeast cells. The assay makes use of a fluorescent reporter, Rosella, which is a dual-emission biosensor comprising a relatively pH-stable red fluorescent protein linked to a pH-sensitive green fluorescent protein. The operation of this reporter relies on differences in pH between the vacuole (pH ~ 5.0-5.5) and mitochondria (pH ~ 8.2) in living cells. Under growing conditions, wild type cells exhibit both red and green fluorescence distributed in a manner characteristic of the mitochondria. Fluorescence emission is not associated with the vacuole. When subjected to nitrogen starvation, a condition which induces mitophagy, in addition to red and green fluorescence labeling the mitochondria, cells exhibit the accumulation of red, but not green fluorescence, in the acidic vacuolar lumen representing the delivery of mitochondria to the vacuole. Scoring cells with red, but not green fluorescent vacuoles can be used as a measure of mitophagic activity in cells5,10-12.

A Fluorescence Microscopy Assay for Monitoring Mitophagy in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

A robust approach to monitor the delivery of organelles to the acidic lumen of the yeast vacuole for degradation and recycling is described. The method relies on the specific labeling of target organelles with a genetically encoded dual-emission fluorescence pH-biosensor, and visualization of individual cells using fluorescence microscopy.

Um Ensaio de microscopia de fluorescência para Mitophagy Monitoramento no fermento Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Autophagy is important for turnover of cellular components under a range of different conditions. It serves an essential homeostatic function as well as a ...

Applications of pHluorin for Quantitative, Kinetic and High-throughput Analysis of Endocytosis in Budding Yeast

Green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its variants are widely used tools for studying protein localization and dynamics of events such as cytoskeletal remodeling and vesicular trafficking in living cells. Quantitative methodologies using chimeric GFP fusions have been developed for many applications; however, GFP is somewhat resistant to proteolysis, thus its fluorescence persists in the lysosome/vacuole, which can impede quantification of cargo trafficking in the endocytic pathway. An alternative method for quantifying endocytosis and post-endocytic trafficking events makes use of superecliptic pHluorin, a pH-sensitive variant of GFP that is quenched in acidic environments. Chimeric fusion of pHluorin to the cytoplasmic tail of transmembrane cargo proteins results in a dampening of fluorescence upon incorporation of the cargo into multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and delivery to the lysosome/vacuole lumen. Thus, quenching of vacuolar fluorescence facilitates quantification of endocytosis and early events in the endocytic pathway. This paper describes methods using pHluorin-tagged cargos for quantification of endocytosis via fluorescence microscopy, as well as population-based assays using flow cytometry.

Accurate quantification of vesicular trafficking events often provides key insights into roles for specific proteins and the effects of mutations. This paper presents methods for using superecliptic pHluorin, a pH-sensitive GFP variant, as a tool for quantification of endocytic events in living cells using quantitative fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry.

Aplicações de pHluorin para Quantitative, Kinetic e de alta capacidade: Análise de endocitose em brotamento Yeast

Green fluorescent protein (GFP) and its variants are widely used tools for studying protein localization and dynamics of events such as cytoskeletal ...

Plunge Freezing: A Tool for the Ultrastructural and Immunolocalization Studies of Suspension Cells in Transmission Electron Microscopy

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is an extraordinary tool for studying cell ultrastructure, in order to localize proteins and visualize macromolecular complexes at very high resolution. However, to get as close as possible to the native state, perfect sample preservation is required. Conventional electron microscopy (EM) fixation with aldehydes, for instance, does not provide good ultrastructural preservation. The slow penetration of fixatives induces cell reorganization and loss of various cell components. Therefore, conventional EM fixation does not allow for an instantaneous stabilization and preservation of structures and antigenicity. The best choice for examining intracellular events is to use cryofixation followed by the freeze-substitution fixation method that keeps cells in their native state. High-pressure freezing/freeze-substitution, which preserves the integrity of cellular ultrastructure, is the most commonly used method, but requires expensive equipment. Here, an easy-to-use and low-cost freeze fixation method followed by freeze-substitution for suspension cell cultures is presented.

This manuscript describes an easy-to-use and low-cost cryofixation method for visualizing suspension cells by transmission electron microscopy.

Congelamento Plunge: Uma ferramenta para os estudos ultra-estruturais e de imunolocalização de células em suspensão em Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is an extraordinary tool for studying cell ultrastructure, in order to localize proteins and visualize ...

4D Microscopy of Yeast

The goal of this protocol is to characterize how membrane compartments form and transform in live cells of budding yeast. Many intracellular compartments in yeast are dynamic, and a full understanding of their properties requires time-lapse imaging. Multi-color 4D confocal fluorescence microscopy is a powerful method for tracking the behavior and composition of an intracellular compartment on a time scale of 5-15 min. Rigorous analysis of compartment dynamics requires the capture of thousands of optical sections. To achieve this aim, photobleaching and phototoxicity are minimized by scanning rapidly at very low laser power, and the pixel dimensions and Z-step intervals are set to the largest values that are compatible with sampling the image at full resolution. The resulting 4D data sets are noisy but can be smoothed by deconvolution. Even with high quality data, the analysis phase is challenging because intracellular structures are often numerous, heterogeneous, and mobile. To meet this need, custom ImageJ plugins were written to array 4D data on a computer screen, identify structures of interest, edit the data to isolate individual structures, quantify the fluorescence time courses, and make movies of the projected Z-stacks. 4D movies are particularly useful for distinguishing stable compartments from transient compartments that turn over by maturation. Such movies can also be used to characterize events such as compartment fusion, and to test the effects of specific mutations or other perturbations.

This protocol describes the analysis of fluorescently labeled intracellular compartments in budding yeast using multi-color 4D (time-lapse 3D) confocal microscopy. The imaging parameters are chosen to capture adequate signals while limiting photodamage. Custom ImageJ plugins allow labeled structures to be tracked and quantitatively analyzed.

4D microscopia de levedura

The goal of this protocol is to characterize how membrane compartments form and transform in live cells of budding yeast. Many intracellular compartments ...

Examination of Mitotic and Meiotic Fission Yeast Nuclear Dynamics by Fluorescence Live-cell Microscopy

Live-cell imaging is a microscopy technique used to examine cell and protein dynamics in living cells. This imaging method is not toxic, generally does not interfere with cell physiology, and requires minimal experimental handling. The low levels of technical interference enable researchers to study cells across multiple cycles of mitosis and to observe meiosis from beginning to end. Using fluorescent tags such as Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) and Red Fluorescent Protein (RFP), researchers can analyze different factors whose functions are important for processes like transcription, DNA replication, cohesion, and segregation. Coupled with data analysis using Fiji (a free, optimized ImageJ version), live-cell imaging offers various ways of assessing protein movement, localization, stability, and timing, as well as nuclear dynamics and chromosome segregation. However, as is the case with other microscopy methods, live-cell imaging is limited by the intrinsic properties of light, which put a limit to the resolution power at high magnifications, and is also sensitive to photobleaching or phototoxicity at high wavelength frequencies. However, with some care, investigators can bypass these physical limitations by carefully choosing the right conditions, strains, and fluorescent markers to allow for the appropriate visualization of mitotic and meiotic events.

Here, we present live-cell imaging which is a non-toxic microscopy method that allows researchers to study protein behavior and nuclear dynamics in living fission yeast cells during mitosis and meiosis.

Examinação da dinâmica nuclear do fermento mitotic e Meiotic da fissão pela microscopia viva-pilha da fluorescência

Live-cell imaging is a microscopy technique used to examine cell and protein dynamics in living cells. This imaging method is not toxic, generally does ...