This work was supported by the Institute of Basic Science (IBS-R015-D1), the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No. 2019M3A9E2061789), and by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) (No. 2019M3E5D2A01058329). We are grateful to Eunsoo Kim and Eugene Lee for their technical assistance.

All surgical procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Sungkyunkwan University and Seoul National University.
1. Preparation of solutions: artificial saliva and tastants
<ol>
	<li>Prepare artificial saliva by dissolving 2 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 3 mM NaHCO3, 3 mM KHCO3, 0.25 mM CaCl2, 0.25 mM MgCl2, 0.12 mM K2HPO4, 0.12 mM KH2PO4, and 1.8 mM HCl in distilled water (&#62;1 L), and adjust the pH of the solution to 7 (see Table of Materials)12.</li>
	<li>Prepare tastants, such as sour: 10 mM citric acid; salty: 400 mM NaCl, optionally with 50 &#181;M amiloride; sweet: 40 mM acesulfame K; bitter: a mixture of 5 mM quinine, 5 mM denatonium and 20 &#181;M cycloheximide, by dissolving the tasting chemical in the artificial saliva prepared in step 1.1.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of the microfluidic system
NOTE: Tastants were delivered to the mouse tongue using a pressurized multichannel fluidic delivery system (refer Figure 1 and Table of Materials).
<ol>
	<li>Fill the reservoirs of the pressurized flow perfusion system with the artificial saliva and tastants.</li>
	<li>Connect the compressed air line to the regulator input and set the air pressure between 30 and 50 psi in the fluidic delivery system.</li>
	<li>Set the output pressure of the regulator to 0.4 psi and check if liquid comes out of the tube under this pressure.</li>
	<li>Connect the manifold from the reservoirs to the input port of &#181;Tongue.</li>
	<li>Connect the output port of &#181;Tongue to a syringe pump and withdraw liquid with ~300 &#181;L&#8729;min-1 to establish the steady-state condition. Observe the constant volume of a hanging droplet under the &#181;Tongue. Adjust the value of the setting parameter depending on the sample height.</li>
	<li>Disconnect the compressed air line and stop the syringe pump until protocol step 3 is completed.</li>
</ol>
3. Mouse preparation for in vivo imaging (Figure 2).
NOTE: All animal preparations were carried out during the daytime under aseptic conditions on a laboratory workbench.
<ol>
	<li>Mouse anesthesia
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a 7-week-old or older mouse of either sex. Use a genetically modified mouse line that expresses calcium-sensing fluorescence proteins in the taste cells.</li>
		<li>The mouse is restrained for anesthesia. A mixture of 100 mg/kg ketamine and 10 mg/kg xylazine is injected intraperitoneally into the mouse13.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>TRITC-dextran (500 kDa) in 2.5% W/V phosphate buffer saline is administrated intravenously into the mouse through a retro-orbital route to observe blood circulation during an imaging session.</li>
	<li>Attach a head fixer on the mouse skull to minimize movement artifacts.
	<ol>
		<li>The mouse head is sprayed with 70% ETOH while the mouse is placed in a supine position. Lift the head skin lightly with forceps and snip off approximately 7 mm2 with scissors.</li>
		<li>Clean the hair around the scalp, remove the periosteum under the skin, apply an instant adhesive to the skull, and attach a customized head fixer.</li>
		<li>After the instant adhesive is hardened, apply dental glue around the head fixer and illuminate with a blue light to solidify dental glue.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place the mouse tongue on the bottom unit of &#181;Tongue.
	<ol>
		<li>Attach the lower lip of the mouse to the bottom unit of &#181;Tongue with an instant adhesive.</li>
		<li>Place the mouse on the board (mouse preparation board in Figure 1B) and put the bottom unit of the &#181;Tongue to the posts (&#181;Tongue hold post in Figure 1B). Make sure that the holes at the edge of the bottom unit are aligned to the post.</li>
		<li>Tighten the mouse head fixer to the head fixer holder at the board. Then, adjust the distance between the mouse head and the device. Rotate the mouse head smoothly approximately 45&#176; using the head fixer holder. This process prevents physical contact of the mouse nose with microscope objective.</li>
		<li>Draw the mouse tongue gently using plastic tweezers and attach the ventral side of the tongue to the upper side of the bottom unit of the &#181;Tongue. Then, wipe the surface of the mouse tongue with a wet cotton swab.</li>
		<li>Soak a piece of paper in the artificial saliva and place it on the exposed surface of the mouse tongue to maintain a wet condition.</li>
		<li>Place the curved washers on the posts that hold both ends of the bottom part of &#181;Tongue.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place the mouse preparation on the microscope stage. Position the exposed mouse tongue under the approximate center of the microscope objective area. Be sure not to deviate from the dynamic range of the stage. Then, tighten the mouse board on the stage with screws.</li>
	<li>Place the heating pad under the mouse body and maintain the temperature at 36.5 &#176;C-37.5 &#176;C. Monitor the mouse body temperature with a temperature sensor and control the temperature of the heating pad using a feedback signal from the temperature sensor.</li>
	<li>Twist a thin piece of paper and place it at the mouth of the mouse to prevent liquid from entering the mouse trachea.</li>
	<li>Remove the wet tissue from the mouse tongue and place the prepared &#181;Tongue on the mouse tongue. Put a microfluidic channel on the tongue and adjust its position to observe the surface of the tongue through the imaging window.</li>
	<li>Secure the &#181;Tongue by gently screwing on both ends with minimal compressive pressure.</li>
</ol>
4. Imaging acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the 920 nm two-photon laser and the microscope in advance of use.</li>
	<li>Mount the water-immersion objective (16x, NA 0.80 or 25x, NA 1.1) on the microscope. Drop the distilled water on the imaging window of the &#181;Tongue and immerse the objective.</li>
	<li>In camera mode, turn on the light using mercury lamp and illuminate the surface of the tongue.</li>
	<li>By adjusting the Z-axis, search the autofluorescent signal from the filiform papillae to find the approximate focal plane. Then, using the X and Y adjustment knob, locate a taste bud.</li>
	<li>Switch to the multiphoton mode. Set the image acquisition conditions as follows: excitation wavelength: 920 nm; emission filter set: 447/60 nm, 525/50 nm, and 607/70 nm; bidirectional raster scan mode, frame size: 512 x 512.</li>
	<li>Adjust the X and Y positions to place the taste bud on the center of the image window.</li>
	<li>Search the blood vessels surrounding the taste bud at about two-third height of the taste bud. Visualize the blood circulation by TRITC-dextran (500 kDa) injection from protocol step 3.2. If the blood flow clogs, loosen the fixing screws slightly to allow blood flow.</li>
	<li>Adjust Z-axis and find the Z-plane of taste bud that contains an adequate number of taste cells.</li>
	<li>Proceed calcium imaging with 2-6 Hz for 80 s. Provide a taste solution of 20 s by switching on the reservoir of the fluidic system after imaging starts. After 20 s of taste stimulation, switch the reservoir back to artificial saliva.</li>
	<li>After sequential imaging is finished, wait for about 3-4 min in advance to the next imaging session. Keep the artificial saliva flowing to the mouse tongue to wash away the tastant remanent from the previous imaging session. Depending on the design of the experiment, repeat the session as required.</li>
	<li>When in vivo calcium imaging is complete, euthanize the mouse according to the IACUC procedure. The mouse under anesthesia is sacrificed in the CO2 chamber. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Check the depth of the anesthesia using a toe-pinch reflex. During an imaging session, artificial saliva from the reservoirs should be provided consistently. If bubbles appear at the imaging window of the &#181;Tongue, remove the bubbles by pushing them through the input or the output of the &#181;Tongue using strong liquid pressure.</li>
</ol>
5. Image analysis (Figure 3)
<ol>
	<li>Image conversion
	<ol>
		<li>Open the raw image files using Fiji14 or a similar image analysis software.</li>
		<li>Convert the image file to a RGB stack file to use the NPL Bud Analyzer code.
		<ol>
			<li>Image &#62; Color &#62; Split Channels</li>
			<li>Image &#62; Color &#62; Merge Channels and select the image from step 5.2.1.</li>
			<li>Image &#62; Color &#62; Stack to RGB</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Image registration 
	NOTE: Use the custom-written code for data analysis. Please refer to https://github.com/neurophotonic/Tastebud-analyzer.
	<ol>
		<li>Run the code named Taste_GUI.m; a GUI window named NPL Bud Analyzer will pop up. Click on the New Analysis button on the upper-right corner, then load the converted image from step 5.1. Set the frame rate above the loaded image.</li>
		<li>Draw the region of interest (ROI) over the loaded image for registration. Double click on the selected ROI and an auto-calculated registration will start.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Obtain the relative fluorescence intensity changes (&#916;F/F)
	<ol>
		<li>Go back to the NPL Bud Analyzer window to show the registered image from step 5.2 automatically. If the user already has a reg file, click on the Load Data button and select the _reg.tif file.</li>
		<li>Click on the CIRCLE or POLYGON button and position the ROI of taste cell over the taste bud image.</li>
		<li>This presents the raw fluorescence intensity and the calcium trace (&#916;F/F) of the selected taste cell automatically under the taste bud image.</li>
		<li>Click on Save Trace to present the calcium trace (&#916;F/F) on the right side of the GUI, while ROI is shown over the taste bud image. Repeat steps 5.3.2-5.3.4 until the ROI selection is finished. 
		NOTE: Click on the Delete Trace button if the ROI is mis-selected to eliminate the last selected ROI and calcium trace.</li>
		<li>After the ROI selection is finished, write the file name on the bottom-right corner, and click on the Finish button to export the &#916;F/F calcium trace as an .xls format, and the tase bud image with ROIs in a .bmp format.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analysis of the calcium trace
	<ol>
		<li>Analyze the calcium trace obtained from step 5.3. Consider that taste cells have reacted to tastant when fluorescence intensity rises more than two standard deviations of the baseline after the tastant is delivered4, and p-values are less than 0.01, using paired or unpaired t-tests10.</li>
		<li>Consider the taste cell as a responder cell, if it responds to a certain tastant more than two times out of three trials(~60%)15.</li>
		<li>Obtain the representative calcium traces by averaging individual calcium traces acquired from step 5.4.1.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Mao, T., O'Connor, D. H., Scheuss, V., Nakai, J., Svoboda, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+and+subcellular+targeting+of+GCaMP-type+genetically-encoded+calcium+indicators.">Characterization and subcellular targeting of GCaMP-type genetically-encoded calcium indicators.</a> PLoS One. 3 (3), 1-10 (2008).</li><li>Shih, A. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-photon+microscopy+as+a+tool+to+study+blood+flow+and+neurovascular+coupling+in+the+rodent+brain.">Two-photon microscopy as a tool to study blood flow and neurovascular coupling in the rodent brain.</a> Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow &amp; Metabolism. 32 (7), 1277-1309 (2012).</li><li>Choi, M., Kwok, S. J. J., Yun, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+fluorescence+microscopy:+Lessons+from+observing+cell+behavior+in+their+native+environment.">In vivo fluorescence microscopy: Lessons from observing cell behavior in their native environment.</a> Physiology. 30 (1), 40-49 (2015).</li><li>Caicedo, A., Samir Jafri, M., Roper, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+Ca2++imaging+reveals+neurotransmitter+receptors+for+glutamate+in+taste+receptor+cells.">In situ Ca2+ imaging reveals neurotransmitter receptors for glutamate in taste receptor cells.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 20 (21), 7978-7985 (2000).</li><li>Tomchik, S. M., Berg, S., Kim, J. W., Chaudhari, N., Roper, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breadth+of+tuning+and+taste+coding+in+mammalian+taste+buds.">Breadth of tuning and taste coding in mammalian taste buds.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (40), 10840-10848 (2007).</li><li>Dando, R., Roper, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-to-cell+communication+in+intact+taste+buds+through+ATP+signalling+from+pannexin+1+gap+junction+hemichannels.">Cell-to-cell communication in intact taste buds through ATP signalling from pannexin 1 gap junction hemichannels.</a> The Journal of Physiology. 587 (24), 5899-5906 (2009).</li><li>Chandrashekar, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cells+and+peripheral+representation+of+sodium+taste+in+mice.">The cells and peripheral representation of sodium taste in mice.</a> Nature. 464 (7286), 297-301 (2010).</li><li>Oka, Y., Butnaru, M., von Buchholtz, L., Ryba, N. J. P., Zuker, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+salt+recruits+aversive+taste+pathways.">High salt recruits aversive taste pathways.</a> Nature. 494 (7438), 472-475 (2013).</li><li>Choi, M., Lee, W. M., Yun, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravital+microscopic+interrogation+of+peripheral+taste+sensation.">Intravital microscopic interrogation of peripheral taste sensation.</a> Scientific Reports. 5 (8661), 1-6 (2015).</li><li>Han, J., Choi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comprehensive+functional+screening+of+taste+sensation+in+vivo.">Comprehensive functional screening of taste sensation in vivo.</a> bioRxiv. 16419 (371682), 1-22 (2018).</li><li>Thestrup, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimized+ratiometric+calcium+sensors+for+functional+in+vivo+imaging+of+neurons+and+T+lymphocytes.">Optimized ratiometric calcium sensors for functional in vivo imaging of neurons and T lymphocytes.</a> Nature Methods. 11 (2), 175-182 (2014).</li><li>Danilova, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glossopharyngeal+nerves+to+taste+stimuli+in+C57BL+/+6J+mice.">Glossopharyngeal nerves to taste stimuli in C57BL / 6J mice.</a> BME Neuroscience. 15, 1-15 (2003).</li><li>Wu, A., Dvoryanchikov, G., Pereira, E., Chaudhari, N., Roper, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breadth+of+tuning+in+taste+afferent+neurons+varies+with+stimulus+strength.">Breadth of tuning in taste afferent neurons varies with stimulus strength.</a> Nature Communications. 6 (8171), 1-11 (2015).</li><li>Schindelin, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fiji:+An+open-source+platform+for+biological-image+analysis.">Fiji: An open-source platform for biological-image analysis.</a> Nature Methods. 9 (7), 676-682 (2012).</li><li>Tan, H. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+gut-brain+axis+mediates+sugar+preference.">The gut-brain axis mediates sugar preference.</a> Nature. 580 (7804), 511-516 (2020).</li><li>Roebber, J. K., Roper, S. D., Chaudhari, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+the+anion+in+salt+(NaCl)+detection+by+mouse+taste+buds.">The role of the anion in salt (NaCl) detection by mouse taste buds.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience. 39 (32), 6224-6232 (2019).</li><li>Kusuhara, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Taste+responses+in+mice+lacking+taste+receptor+subunit+T1R1.">Taste responses in mice lacking taste receptor subunit T1R1.</a> Journal of Physiology. 591 (7), 1967-1985 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors declare competing financial interests: J. Han and M. Choi are inventors of the patented &#181;Tongue technology described in this article, and the &#181;Tongue system is commercially available via SciTech Korea.

Described here is a detailed protocol to apply &#181;Tongue to the investigation of functional activities of taste cells in vivo. In this protocol, the functional imaging on the taste cells using genetically encoded calcium indicators is performed. In addition to the use of transgenic mice, the electrophoretic loading of calcium dyes (or voltage sensing dyes) onto the taste cells can be an alternative option.
All the taste solutions less than 1.336 of refractive index were used in thi...

The intravital fluorescence microscope is used widely to study the spatiotemporal dynamics on living tissues. Researchers are rapidly developing genetically encoded sensors that provide specific and sensitive transformations of the biological processes into fluorescence signals - which can be recorded readily using fluorescence microscopes that are widely available1,2. Although most internal organs in rodents have been investigated using the microscope, its successful application to the tongue has not yet been successful3.
Previous studies on the calcium imaging of taste cells were conducted ex vivo by thin-sectioning a tongue tissue to obtain circumvallate taste buds4,5,6 or by peeling off the taste epithelium to obtain fungiform taste buds7,8. The preparation of these samples was inevitably invasive, thus the natural microenvironments such as nerves innervation, permeability barriers, and blood circulation, were largely perturbed. The first intravital tongue imaging window was reported in 2015 by Choi et al., but reliable functional recording was not achievable because of the movement and optical artifacts caused by fluidic tastant stimuli9.
Recently, microfluidics-on-a-tongue (&#181;Tongue) was introduced10. This device integrates a microfluidic system with an imaging window on the mouse tongue. By attaining a quasi-steady-state flow of tastant stimuli throughout the imaging period, artifacts from fluidic motion could be minimized (Figure 1). The input port is fed by a series of multichannel pressure controllers, whereas the output port is connected to a syringe pump, which maintains 0.3 mL/min. Additionally, optical artifacts caused by the difference in refractive indices of tastant solutions were minimized by ratiometric analysis introducing a calcium-insensitive indicator (tdTomato) as well as the calcium indicator (GCaMP6)11. This design provided microscopic stability of taste cells in vivo even with abrupt switching between fluidic channels. Consequently, the &#181;Tongue implement a reliable functional screening of multiple tastants to the mouse taste buds in vivo.
In this protocol, the experimental procedures are explained in detail for calcium imaging of the mouse fungiform taste buds in vivo using &#181;Tongue. First, the preparation of artificial saliva and tastant solutions is described. Second, the setting up of the microfluidic system to achieve the quasi-steady-state flow is introduced. Third, the procedures used to mount the mouse tongue on the &#181;Tongue to permit image acquisition are delineated. Lastly, each step for image analysis, including correction of lateral motion artifacts and ratiometry, is specified. This protocol can be adapted readily to any research laboratory with a mouse facility and a two-photon microscope or equivalent equipment.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>acesulfame K</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>04054-25G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>calcium chloride solution</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>21115-100ML</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>citric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C0759-100G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cycloheximide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>01810-5G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>denatonium</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D5765-5G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dental glue</td>
			<td>Denkist</td>
			<td>P0000CJT-A2</td>
			<td>Animal preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image J</td>
			<td>NIH</td>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>Data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IMP</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>57510-5G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Instant adhesive</td>
			<td>Loctite</td>
			<td>Loctite 4161, Henkel</td>
			<td>Animal preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K2HPO4</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3786-100G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9541-500G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine</td>
			<td>Yuhan</td>
			<td>Ketamine 50</td>
			<td>Animal preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0662-25G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KHCO3</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>237205-500G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td>Mathwork</td>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td>Data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M8266-100G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MPG</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>49601-100G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mutiphoton microscope</td>
			<td>Thorlab</td>
			<td>&#160;Bergamo II</td>
			<td>Microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S3014-500G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaHCO3</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>792519-500G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Objective</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>N16XLWD-PF</td>
			<td>Microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Octaflow</td>
			<td>ALA Scientific Instruments</td>
			<td>OCTAFLOW II</td>
			<td>Fluidic control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PC</td>
			<td>LG</td>
			<td>Lg15N54</td>
			<td>Fluidic control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PH meter</td>
			<td>Thermoscientific</td>
			<td>ORION STAR AZ11</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered saline</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>806562</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>quinine</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Q1125-5G</td>
			<td>Artificial saliva / tastant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump</td>
			<td>Havard Apparatus</td>
			<td>PHD ULTRA 4400</td>
			<td>Fluidic control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRITC-dextran</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>52194-1G</td>
			<td>Animal preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrafast fiber laser</td>
			<td>Toptica</td>
			<td>FFultra920 01042</td>
			<td>Microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine</td>
			<td>Bayer Korea</td>
			<td>Rompun</td>
			<td>Animal preparation</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

&#181;tongue: a microfluidics-based functional imaging platform for the tongue in vivo

Intravital fluorescence microscopy is a tool used widely to study multicellular dynamics in a live animal. However, it has not been successfully used in the taste sensory organ. By integrating microfluidics into the intravital tongue imaging window, the &#181;Tongue provides reliable functional images of taste cells in vivo under controlled exposure to multiple tastants. In this paper, a detailed step-by-step procedure to utilize the &#181;Tongue system is presented. There are five subsections: preparing of tastant solutions, setting up of a microfluidic module, sample mounting, acquiring functional image data, and data analysis. Some tips and techniques to solve the practical issues that may arise when using the &#181;Tongue are also presented.

The Pirt-GCaMP6f-tdTomato mouse was used to obtain a taste bud image. The surface of the mouse tongue was covered with autofluorescent filiform papillae. Taste buds are spread sparsely over the surface of the tongue (Figure 4A). The images of the taste bud and its structure were acquired using three different filter detectors. Using the 607/70 nm filter set, the tdTomato signal from the taste cells was obtained for ratiometric analysis (Figure 4B). Using the 525...

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 &#181;Tongue: A Microfluidics-Based Functional Imaging Platform for the Tongue In Vivo

The article introduces the &#181;Tongue (microfluidics-on-a-tongue) device for functional taste cell imaging in vivo by integrating microfluidics into an intravital imaging window on the tongue.

&#181;Tongue: A Microfluidics-Based Functional Imaging Platform for the Tongue In Vivo

Intravital fluorescence microscopy is a tool used widely to study multicellular dynamics in a live animal. However, it has not been successfully used in ...

tongue-microfluidics-based-functional-imaging-platform-for-tongue

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

4.1K Views.  Sungkyunkwan University. The article introduces the µTongue (microfluidics-on-a-tongue) device for functional taste cell imaging in vivo by integrating microfluidics into an intravital imaging window on the tongue.

Video:  µTongue: A Microfluidics-Based Functional Imaging Platform for the Tongue In Vivo

Functional Mapping with Simultaneous MEG and EEG

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to locate and determine the temporal evolution in brain areas involved in the processing of simple sensory stimuli. We will use somatosensory stimuli to locate the hand somatosensory areas, auditory stimuli to locate the auditory cortices, visual stimuli in four quadrants of the visual field to locate the early visual areas. These type of experiments are used for functional mapping in epileptic and brain tumor patients to locate eloquent cortices. In basic neuroscience similar experimental protocols are used to study the orchestration of cortical activity. The acquisition protocol includes quality assurance procedures, subject preparation for the combined MEG/EEG study, and acquisition of evoked-response data with somatosensory, auditory, and visual stimuli. We also demonstrate analysis of the data using the equivalent current dipole model and cortically-constrained minimum-norm estimates. Anatomical MRI data are employed in the analysis for visualization and for deriving boundaries of tissue boundaries for forward modeling and cortical location and orientation constraints for the minimum-norm estimates.

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to map brain areas involved in the processing of simple sensory stimuli.

We use magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) to locate and determine the temporal evolution in brain areas involved in the ...

High-resolution Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Methods for Human Midbrain

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon measuring activity on the surface of cerebral cortex rather than in subcortical regions such as midbrain and brainstem. Subcortical fMRI must overcome two challenges: spatial resolution and physiological noise. Here we describe an optimized set of techniques developed to perform high-resolution fMRI in human SC, a structure on the dorsal surface of the midbrain; the methods can also be used to image other brainstem and subcortical structures.
High-resolution (1.2 mm voxels) fMRI of the SC requires a non-conventional approach. The desired spatial sampling is obtained using a multi-shot (interleaved) spiral acquisition1. Since, T2* of SC tissue is longer than in cortex, a correspondingly longer echo time (TE ~ 40 msec) is used to maximize functional contrast. To cover the full extent of the SC, 8-10 slices are obtained. For each session a structural anatomy with the same slice prescription as the fMRI is also obtained, which is used to align the functional data to a high-resolution reference volume.
In a separate session, for each subject, we create a high-resolution (0.7 mm sampling) reference volume using a T1-weighted sequence that gives good tissue contrast. In the reference volume, the midbrain region is segmented using the ITK-SNAP software application2. This segmentation is used to create a 3D surface representation of the midbrain that is both smooth and accurate3. The surface vertices and normals are used to create a map of depth from the midbrain surface within the tissue4.
Functional data is transformed into the coordinate system of the segmented reference volume. Depth associations of the voxels enable the averaging of fMRI time series data within specified depth ranges to improve signal quality. Data is rendered on the 3D surface for visualization.
In our lab we use this technique for measuring topographic maps of visual stimulation and covert and overt visual attention within the SC1. As an example, we demonstrate the topographic representation of polar angle to visual stimulation in SC.

This article describes techniques to perform high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging with 1.2 mm sampling in human midbrain and subcortical structures using a 3T scanner. Use of these techniques to resolve topographic maps of visual stimulation in the human superior colliculus (SC) is given as an example.

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

Ex Vivo Imaging of Postnatal Cerebellar Granule Cell Migration Using Confocal Macroscopy

During postnatal development, immature granule cells (excitatory interneurons) exhibit tangential migration in the external granular layer, and then radial migration in the molecular layer and the Purkinje cell layer to reach the internal granular layer of the cerebellar cortex. Default in migratory processes induces either cell death or misplacement of the neurons, leading to deficits in diverse cerebellar functions. Centripetal granule cell migration involves several mechanisms, such as chemotaxis and extracellular matrix degradation, to guide the cells towards their final position, but the factors that regulate cell migration in each cortical layer are only partially known. In our method, acute cerebellar slices are prepared from P10 rats, granule cells are labeled with a fluorescent cytoplasmic marker and tissues are cultured on membrane inserts from 4 to 10 hr before starting real-time monitoring of cell migration by confocal macroscopy at 37 &#176;C in the presence of CO2. During their migration in the different cortical layers of the cerebellum, granule cells can be exposed to neuropeptide agonists or antagonists, protease inhibitors, blockers of intracellular effectors or even toxic substances such as alcohol or methylmercury to investigate their possible role in the regulation of neuronal migration.

Ex Vivo Imaging of Postnatal Cerebellar Granule Cell Migration Using Confocal Macroscopy

During postnatal cerebellum development, immature granule cells originating from the germinal zone exhibit distinct modalities of migration to reach their final destination and to establish neuronal networks. This protocol describes the preparation of cerebellar slices and the confocal macroscopic approach used to investigate the factors that regulate neuronal migration.

During postnatal development, immature granule cells (excitatory interneurons) exhibit tangential migration in the external granular layer, and then ...

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of structural MRI in vivo is ultimately limited by physiological noise, including pulsation, respiration and head movement. Although imaging hardware continues to improve, it is still difficult to resolve structures on the millimeter scale. For example, the primary visual sensory pathways synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), a visual relay and control nucleus in the thalamus that normally is organized into six interleaved monocular layers. Neuroimaging studies have not been able to reliably distinguish these layers due their small size that are less than 1 mm thick.
The resolving limit of structural MRI, in a postmortem brain was tested using multiple images averaged over a long duration (~24 h). The purpose was to test whether it was possible to resolve the individual layers of the LGN in the absence of physiological noise. A proton density (PD)1 weighted pulse sequence was used with varying resolution and other parameters to determine the minimum number of images necessary to be registered and averaged to reliably distinguish the LGN and other subcortical regions. The results were also compared to images acquired in living human brains. In vivo subjects were scanned in order to determine the additional effects of physiological noise on the minimum number of PD scans needed to differentiate subcortical structures, useful in clinical applications.

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

Here we present a protocol to determine the minimum number images that needed to be registered and averaged to resolve subcortical structures and test whether the individual layers of the LGN could be resolved in the absence of physiological noise.

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of ...

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new method of Ca2+-imaging using the bioluminescent reporter GFP-aequorin (GA) has been developed. This new technique relies on the fusion of the GFP and aequorin genes, producing a molecule capable of binding calcium and&#160;&#8212; with the addition of its cofactor coelenterazine &#8212; emitting bright light that can be monitored through a photon collector. Transgenic lines carrying the GFP-aequorin gene have been generated for both mice and Drosophila. In Drosophila, the GFP-aequorin gene has been placed under the control of the GAL4/UAS binary expression system allowing for targeted expression and imaging within the brain. This method has subsequently been shown to be capable of detecting both inward Ca2+-transients and Ca2+-released from inner stores. Most importantly it allows for a greater duration in continuous recording, imaging at greater depths within the brain, and recording at high temporal resolutions (up to 8.3 msec). Here we present the basic method for using bioluminescent imaging to record and analyze Ca2+-activity within the mushroom bodies, a structure central to learning and memory in the fly brain.

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

Here we present a novel Ca2+-imaging approach using a bioluminescent reporter. This approach uses a fused construct GFP-aequorin which binds to Ca2+ and emits light, eliminating the need for light excitation. Significantly this method permits long continuous imaging, access to deep brain structures and high temporal resolution.

Functional in vivo imaging has become a powerful approach to study the function and physiology of brain cells and structures of interest. Recently a new ...

A Volumetric Method for Quantification of Cerebral Vasospasm in a Murine Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a subtype of hemorrhagic stroke. Cerebral vasospasm that occurs in the aftermath of the bleeding is an important factor determining patient outcome and is therefore frequently taken as a study endpoint. However, in small animal studies on SAH, quantification of cerebral vasospasm is a major challenge. Here, an ex vivo method is presented that allows quantification of volumes of entire vessel segments, which can be used as an objective measure to quantify cerebral vasospasm. In a first step, endovascular casting of the cerebral vasculature is performed using a radiopaque casting agent. Then, cross-sectional imaging data are acquired by micro computed tomography. The final step involves 3-dimensional reconstruction of the virtual vascular tree, followed by an algorithm to calculate center lines and volumes of the selected vessel segments. The method resulted in a highly accurate virtual reconstruction of the cerebrovascular tree shown by a diameter-based comparison of anatomical samples with their virtual reconstructions. Compared with vessel diameters alone, the vessel volumes highlight the differences between vasospastic and non-vasospastic vessels shown in a series of SAH and sham-operated mice.

The goal of this article is to present a method that allows a 3-dimensional reconstruction of the cerebrovascular tree in mice after micro computed tomography and determination of volumes of entire vessel segments that can be used to quantify cerebral vasospasm in murine models of subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a subtype of hemorrhagic stroke. Cerebral vasospasm that occurs in the aftermath of the bleeding is an important factor ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging methods exist for examining the brain tissue of live newborn mammals. Herein we summarize a protocol for imaging individual cortical neurons in living neonatal mice. This protocol includes the following two methodologies: (1) the Supernova system for sparse and bright labeling of cortical neurons in the developing brain, and (2) a surgical procedure for the fragile neonatal skull. This protocol allows the observation of temporal changes of individual cortical neurites during neonatal stages with a high signal-to-noise ratio. Labeled cell-specific gene silencing and knockout can also be achieved by combining the Supernova with RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing systems. This protocol can, thus, be used for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

We present an in vivo two-photon imaging protocol for imaging the cerebral cortex of neonatal mice. This method is suitable for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, the molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and the changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging ...

In Vivo Imaging of Cerebrospinal Fluid Transport through the Intact Mouse Skull using Fluorescence Macroscopy

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow in rodents has largely been studied using ex vivo quantification of tracers. Techniques such as two-photon microscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have enabled in vivo quantification of CSF flow but they are limited by reduced imaging volumes and low spatial resolution, respectively. Recent work has found that CSF enters the brain parenchyma through a network of perivascular spaces surrounding the pial and penetrating arteries of the rodent cortex. This perivascular entry of CSF is a primary driver of the glymphatic system, a pathway implicated in the clearance of toxic metabolic solutes (e.g., amyloid-&#946;). Here, we illustrate a new macroscopic imaging technique that allows real-time, mesoscopic imaging of fluorescent CSF tracers through the intact skull of live mice. This minimally-invasive method facilitates a multitude of experimental designs and enables single or repeated testing of CSF dynamics. Macroscopes have high spatial and temporal resolution and their large gantry and working distance allow for imaging while performing tasks on behavioral devices. This imaging approach has been validated using two-photon imaging and fluorescence measurements obtained from this technique strongly correlate with ex vivo fluorescence and quantification of radio-labeled tracers. In this protocol, we describe how transcranial macroscopic imaging can be used to evaluate glymphatic transport in live mice, offering an accessible alternative to more costly imaging modalities.

Transcranial optical imaging allows wide-field imaging of cerebrospinal fluid transport in the cortex of live mice through an intact skull.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow in rodents has largely been studied using ex vivo quantification of tracers. Techniques such as two-photon microscopy and ...

µTongue: A Microfluidics-Based Functional Imaging Platform for the Tongue In Vivo

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Rozdziały w tym wideo

Functional Mapping with Simultaneous MEG and EEG

High-resolution Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Methods for Human Midbrain

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Ex Vivo Imaging of Postnatal Cerebellar Granule Cell Migration Using Confocal Macroscopy

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

In Vivo Functional Brain Imaging Approach Based on Bioluminescent Calcium Indicator GFP-aequorin

A Volumetric Method for Quantification of Cerebral Vasospasm in a Murine Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

In Vivo Imaging of Cerebrospinal Fluid Transport through the Intact Mouse Skull using Fluorescence Macroscopy