Author contributions: YLL and MSD designed the project; MSD assembled nucleosomes. MSD and ZS performed AFM experiments and data analyses. All authors wrote and edited the manuscript.

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The protocol described above is rather straightforward and provide highly reproducible results, although a few important issues can be emphasized. Functionalized APS-mica is a key substrate for getting reliable and reproducible results. A high stability of APS-mica is one of the important features of this substrate that allows one to prepare the imaging substrate in advance for use that can be used at least two weeks after being prepared.59,61 However, the surfac...

In eukaryotic cells, DNA is highly condensed and organized into chromosomes.1 The first level of DNA organization within a chromosome is the assembly of nucleosomes in which 147 bp of DNA is tightly wrapped around a histone octamer core.2,3 Nucleosome particles assemble on a long DNA molecule forming a chromatin array which is then organized until a highly compact chromosome unit is formed.4 The disassembly of chromatin provides the access to free DNA required by critical cellular processes such as gene transcription and genome replication, suggesting that chromatin is a highly dynamic system.5,6,7 Understanding the dynamic properties of DNA at various chromatin levels is critically important for elucidating genetic processes at the molecular level where mistakes can lead to cell death or the development of diseases such as cancer.8 A chromatin property of great importance is the dynamics of nucleosomes.9,10,11,12 The high stability of these particles has allowed for the structural characterization by crystallographic techniques.2 What these studies lack are the dynamic details of nucleosomes such as the mechanism of DNA unwrapping from the histone core; the dynamic pathway of which is required for transcription and replication processes.7,9,13,14,15,16 Furthermore, special proteins termed remodeling factors have been shown to facilitate the disassembly of nucleosomal particles17; however, the intrinsic dynamics of nucleosomes is the critical factor in this process that contributes to the entire disassembly process.14,16,18,19
Single-molecule techniques such as single-molecule fluorescence19,20,21, optical trapping (tweezers)13,18,22,23 and AFM10,14,15,16,24,25,26 have been instrumental in understanding the dynamics of nucleosomes. Among these methods, AFM benefits from several unique and attractive features. AFM allows one to visualize and characterize individual nucleosomes as well as the longer arrays27. From AFM images, important characteristics of nucleosome structure such as the length of DNA wrapped around the histone core can be measured 10,14,26,28; a parameter that is central to the characterization of nucleosome unwrapping dynamics. Past AFM studies have revealed nucleosomes to be highly dynamic systems and that DNA can spontaneously unwrap from the histone core14. The spontaneous unwrapping of DNA from nucleosomes was directly visualized by AFM operating in the time-lapse mode when the imaging is done in aqueous solutions 14,26,29.
The advent of the high-speed time-lapse AFM (HS-AFM) instrumentation made it possible to visualize the nucleosome unwrapping process at the millisecond time-scale 14,15,24. Recent HS-AFM 16,30 studies of centromere specific nucleosomes revealed several novel features of the nucleosomes compared with the canonical type. Centromere nucleosomes constitute of a centromere, a small part of the chromosome critically important for chromosome segregation31. Unlike canonical nucleosomes in bulk chromatin, the histone core of centromere nucleosomes contains CENP-A histone instead of histone H332,33. As a result of this histone substitution, DNA wrapping in centromere nucleosomes is ~120 bp instead of the ~147 bp for canonical nucleosomes; a difference that can lead to distinct morphologies of the centromere and canonical nucleosomes arrays34, suggesting that centromere chromatin undergoes higher dynamics compared with the bulk one. The novel dynamics displayed by centromere nucleosomes in HS-AFM16,30 studies exemplify the unique opportunity provided by this single-molecule technique to directly visualize the structural and dynamic properties of nucleosomes. Examples of these features will be briefly discussed and illustrated at the end of the paper. This progress was made due to the development of novel protocols for AFM imaging of nucleosomes as well as the modifications of existing methods. The goal of the protocol described here is to make these exciting advances in single-molecule AFM nucleosome studies accessible to anyone who would like to utilize these techniques in their chromatin investigations. Many of the techniques described are applicable to problems beyond the study of nucleosomes and can be used for investigations of other protein and DNA systems of interest. A few examples of such applications can be found in publications35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49 and prospects of AFM studies of various biomolecular systems are given in reviews29,50,51,53,54.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1229px;" width="1229">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Plasmid pGEM3Z-601</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Addgene, Cambridge, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">26656</td>
			<td style="width:449px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">PCR Primers</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">IDT, Coralville, IA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Custom Order</td>
			<td>(FP) 5&#39;- CAGTGAATTGTAATACGACTC-3&#39; (RP) 5&#39;-ACAGCTATGACCATGATTAC-3&#39;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">DreamTaq polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">EP0701</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 200 units</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">PCR purification kit</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Qiagen, Hilden, Germany&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">28104</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 units</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Tris base</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">10708976001</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 250 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:335px;">EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td>15576028</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">(CENP-A/H4)2, recombinant human</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">EpiCypher, Durham, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">16-0010</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 ug</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">H2A/H2B, recombinant human</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">EpiCypher, Durham, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15-0311</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 ug</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">H3 Octamer, recombinant human</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">EpiCypher, Durham, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">16-0001</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 50 ug</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Slide-A-Lyzer MINI Dialysis Device Kit, 10K MWCO, 0.1 mL</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">69574</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S9888-500G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 mg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Amicon Ultra-0.5&#160;mL Centrifugal Filters&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Millipore-sigma, Burlington, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">UFC501008</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 8 devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">HCl</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>258148-25ML</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 25 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Tricine</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>T0377-25G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 25 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">SDS</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11667289001</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 1 kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Ammonium Persulfate (AmmPS)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610700</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">30% Acrylamide/Bis Solution, 37.5:1</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610158</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">TEMED</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610800</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 5 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">4x Laemmli protein sample buffer for SDS-PAGE</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610747</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">2-ME</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M6250-10ML</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">ageRuler Prestained Protein Ladder&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">ThermoFischer Scientific, Waltham, MA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">26616</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 500 uL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Bio-Safe&#8482; Coomassie Stain</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1610786</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Nonwoven cleanroom wipes: TX604 TechniCloth&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">TexWipe, Kernersvile, NC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TX604</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Muscovite Block Mica</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">AshevilleMica, Newport News, VA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Grade-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Aminopropyl silatrane (APS)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Synthesized as described in 22</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">HEPES</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">H4034-25G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 25 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Scotch Tape</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Scotch-3M, St. Paul, MN</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">TESPA-V2 afm probe (for static imaging)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bruker AFM Probes, Camarillo, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">MSNL-10 afm probe (for standard time-lapse imaing)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bruker AFM Probes, Camarillo, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Aron Alpha Industrial Krazy Glue</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Toagosei America, West Jefferson, OH</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AA480</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 2 g tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M8266-100G</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 100 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">Millex-GP Filter, 0.22&#160;&#181;m</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SLGP05010</td>
			<td>Catalog number for 10 devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">BL-AC10DS-A2 afm probe (for HS-AFM)</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Olympus, Japan</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Compound FG-3020C-20&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">FluoroTechnology Co., Ltd., Kagiya, Kasugai, Aichi, Japan&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:335px;">Compound FS-1010S135-0.5&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">FluoroTechnology Co., Ltd., Kagiya, Kasugai, Aichi, Japan&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">MultiMode Atomic Force Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Bruker-Nano/Veeco, Santa Barbara, CA</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:335px;">High-Speed Time-Lapse Atomic Force Microsocopy</td>
			<td style="width:327px;">Toshio Ando, Nano-Life Science Institute, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, Japan</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

probing the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes using atomic force microscopy imaging

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription to take place in eukaryotic cells. The dynamics of nucleosomes provides access to the DNA by replication and transcription machineries, and critically contributes to the molecular mechanisms underlying chromatin functions. Single-molecule studies such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging have contributed significantly to our current understanding of the role of nucleosome structure and dynamics. The current protocol describes the steps enabling high-resolution AFM imaging techniques to study the structural and dynamic properties of nucleosomes. The protocol is illustrated by AFM data obtained for the centromere nucleosomes in which H3 histone is replaced with its counterpart centromere protein A (CENP-A). The protocol starts with the assembly of mono-nucleosomes using a continuous dilution method. The preparation of the mica substrate functionalized with aminopropyl silatrane (APS-mica) that is used for the nucleosome imaging is critical for the AFM visualization of nucleosomes described and the procedure to prepare the substrate is provided. Nucleosomes deposited on the APS-mica surface are first imaged using static AFM, which captures a snapshot of the nucleosome population. From analyses of these images, such parameters as the size of DNA wrapped around the nucleosomes can be measured and this process is also detailed. The time-lapse AFM imaging procedure in the liquid is described for the high-speed time-lapse AFM that can capture several frames of nucleosome dynamics per second. Finally, the analysis of nucleosome dynamics enabling the quantitative characterization of the dynamic processes is described and illustrated.

Mono-nucleosomes were first prepared for AFM imaging experiments using a continuous dilution assembly method (Figure 1). The prepared nucleosomes were then checked using discontinuous SDS-PAGE (Figure 2). A mica surface was next functionalized using APS, which captures nucleosomes at the surface while maintaining a smooth background for high-resolution imaging (Figure 3). Nucleosomes were deposited on APS-mica and were subsequently ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging at JoVE.com

Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging

Here, we present a protocol to characterize nucleosome particles at the single-molecule level using static and time-lapse atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging techniques. The surface functionalization method described allows for the capture of the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes in high-resolution at the nanoscale.

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription ...

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11.5K Views.  University of Nebraska Medical Center. Here, we present a protocol to characterize nucleosome particles at the single-molecule level using static and time-lapse atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging techniques. The surface functionalization method described allows for the capture of the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes in high-resolution at the nanoscale.

Video: Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging

Time-resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Hydrogen-deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry for Studying Protein Structure and Dynamics

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange (HDX) measured at rapid time scales is uniquely suited to detect structures and hydrogen bonding networks that are briefly populated, allowing for the characterization of transient conformers in native ensembles. Coupling of HDX to mass spectrometry offers several key advantages, including high sensitivity, low sample consumption and no restriction on protein size. This technique has advanced greatly in the last several decades, including the ability to monitor HDX labeling times on the millisecond time scale. In addition, by incorporating the HDX workflow onto a microfluidic platform housing an acidic protease microreactor, we are able to localize dynamic properties at the peptide level. In this study, Time-Resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TRESI-MS) coupled to HDX was used to provide a detailed picture of residual structure in the tau protein, as well as the conformational shifts induced upon hyperphosphorylation.

Conformational flexibility plays a critical role in protein function. Herein, we describe the use of time-resolved electrospray ionization mass spectrometry coupled to hydrogen-deuterium exchange for probing the rapid structural changes that drive function in ordered and disordered proteins.

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. ...

Investigating Protein Sequence-structure-dynamics Relationships with Bio3D-web

We demonstrate the usage of Bio3D-web for the interactive analysis of biomolecular structure data. The Bio3D-web application provides online functionality for: (1) The identification of related protein structure sets to user specified thresholds of similarity; (2) Their multiple alignment and structure superposition; (3) Sequence and structure conservation analysis; (4) Inter-conformer relationship mapping with principal component analysis, and (5) comparison of predicted internal dynamics via ensemble normal mode analysis. This integrated functionality provides a complete online workflow for investigating sequence-structure-dynamic relationships within protein families and superfamilies.

A protocol for the online investigation of protein sequence-structure-dynamics relationships using Bio3D-web is presented.

We demonstrate the usage of Bio3D-web for the interactive analysis of biomolecular structure data. The Bio3D-web application provides online functionality ...

Force Spectroscopy of Single Protein Molecules Using an Atomic Force Microscope

The determination of the folding process of proteins from their amino acid sequence to their native 3D structure is an important problem in biology. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) can address this problem by enabling stretching and relaxation of single protein molecules, which gives direct evidence of specific unfolding and refolding characteristics. AFM-based single-molecule force-spectroscopy (AFM-SMFS) provides a means to consistently measure high-energy conformations in proteins that are not possible in traditional bulk (biochemical) measurements. Although numerous papers were published to show principles of AFM-SMFS, it is not easy to conduct SMFS experiments due to a lack of an exhaustively complete protocol. In this study, we briefly illustrate the principles of AFM and extensively detail the protocols, procedures, and data analysis as a guideline to achieve good results from SMFS experiments. We demonstrate representative SMFS results of single protein mechanical unfolding measurements and we provide troubleshooting strategies for some commonly encountered problems.

We describe the detailed procedures and strategies to measure the mechanical properties and mechanical unfolding pathways of single protein molecules using an atomic force microscope. We also show representative results as a reference for selection and justification of good single protein molecule recordings.

The determination of the folding process of proteins from their amino acid sequence to their native 3D structure is an important problem in biology. ...

Analysis of &#946;-Amyloid-induced Abnormalities on Fibrin Clot Structure by Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy

This article presents methods for generating in vitro fibrin clots and analyzing the effect of beta-amyloid (A&#946;) protein on clot formation and structure by spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A&#946;, which forms neurotoxic amyloid aggregates in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), has been shown to interact with fibrinogen. This A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction makes the fibrin clot structurally abnormal and resistant to fibrinolysis. A&#946;-induced abnormalities in fibrin clotting may also contribute to cerebrovascular aspects of the AD pathology such as microinfarcts, inflammation, as well as, cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Given the potentially critical role of neurovascular deficits in AD pathology, developing compounds which can inhibit or lessen the A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction has promising therapeutic value. In vitro methods by which fibrin clot formation can be easily and systematically assessed are potentially useful tools for developing therapeutic compounds. Presented here is an optimized protocol for in vitro generation of the fibrin clot, as well as analysis of the effect of A&#946; and A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction inhibitors. The clot turbidity assay is rapid, highly reproducible and can be used to test multiple conditions simultaneously, allowing for the screening of large numbers of A&#946;-fibrinogen inhibitors. Hit compounds from this screening can be further evaluated for their ability to ameliorate A&#946;-induced structural abnormalities of the fibrin clot architecture using SEM. The effectiveness of these optimized protocols is demonstrated here using TDI-2760, a recently identified A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction inhibitor.

Presented here are two methods that can be used individually or in combination to analyze the effect of beta-amyloid on fibrin clot structure. Included is a protocol for creating an in vitro fibrin clot, followed by clot turbidity and scanning electron microscopy methods.

This article presents methods for generating in vitro fibrin clots and analyzing the effect of beta-amyloid (A&#946;) protein on clot formation and ...

Structure Solution of the Fluorescent Protein Cerulean Using MeshAndCollect

X-ray crystallography is the major technique used to obtain high resolution information concerning the 3-dimensional structures of biological macromolecules. Until recently, a major requirement has been the availability of relatively large, well diffracting crystals, which are often challenging to obtain. However, the advent of serial crystallography and a renaissance in multi-crystal data collection methods has meant that the availability of large crystals need no longer be a limiting factor. Here, we illustrate the use of the automated MeshAndCollect protocol, which first identifies the positions of many small crystals mounted on the same sample holder and then directs the collection from the crystals of a series of partial diffraction data sets for subsequent merging and use in structure determination. MeshAndCollect can be applied to any type of micro-crystals, even if weakly diffracting. As an example, we present here the use of the technique to solve the crystal structure of the Cyan Fluorescent Protein (CFP) Cerulean.

We present the use of the MeshAndCollect protocol to obtain a complete diffraction data set, for use in subsequent structure determination, composed of partial diffraction data sets collected from many small crystals of the fluorescent protein Cerulean.

X-ray crystallography is the major technique used to obtain high resolution information concerning the 3-dimensional structures of biological ...

Imaging of Extracellular Vesicles by Atomic Force Microscopy

Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles (EVs) are molecular complexes consisting of a lipid membrane vesicle, its surface decoration by membrane proteins and other molecules, and diverse luminal content inherited from a parent cell, which includes RNAs, proteins, and DNAs. The characterization of the hydrodynamic sizes of EVs, which depends on the size of the vesicle and its coronal layer formed by surface decorations, has become routine. For exosomes, the smallest of EVs, the relative difference between the hydrodynamic and vesicles sizes is significant. The characterization of vesicles sizes by the cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) imaging, a gold standard technique, remains a challenge due to the cost of the instrument, the expertise required to perform the sample preparation, imaging and data analysis, and a small number of particles often observed in images. A widely available and accessible alternative is the atomic force microscopy (AFM), which can produce versatile data on three-dimensional geometry, size, and other biophysical properties of extracellular vesicles. The developed protocol guides the users in utilizing this analytical tool and outlines the workflow for the analysis of EVs by the AFM, which includes the sample preparation for imaging EVs in hydrated or desiccated form, the electrostatic immobilization of vesicles on a substrate, data acquisition, its analysis, and interpretation. The representative results demonstrate that the fixation of EVs on the modified mica surface is predictable, customizable, and allows the user to obtain sizing results for a large number of vesicles. The vesicle sizing based on the AFM data was found to be consistent with the cryo-TEM imaging.&#160;

A step-by-step procedure is described for label-free immobilization of exosomes and extracellular vesicles from liquid samples and their imaging by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The AFM images are used to estimate the size of the vesicles in the solution and characterize other biophysical properties.&#160;

Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles (EVs) are molecular complexes consisting of a lipid membrane vesicle, its surface decoration by membrane ...

Visualizing Surface T-Cell Receptor Dynamics Four-Dimensionally Using Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy

The signaling and function of a cell are dictated by the dynamic structures and interactions of its surface receptors. To truly understand the structure-function relationship of these receptors in situ, we need to visualize and track them on the live cell surface with enough spatiotemporal resolution. Here we show how to use recently developed Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy (LLSM) to image T-cell receptors (TCRs) four-dimensionally (4D, space and time) at the live cell membrane. T cells are one of the main effector cells of the adaptive immune system, and here we used T cells as an example to show that the signaling and function of these cells are driven by the dynamics and interactions of the TCRs. LLSM allows for 4D imaging with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution. This microscopy technique therefore can be generally applied to a wide array of surface or intracellular molecules of different cells in biology.

The goal of this protocol is to show how to use Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy to four-dimensionally visualize surface receptor dynamics in live cells. Here T cell receptors on CD4+ primary T cells are shown.

The signaling and function of a cell are dictated by the dynamic structures and interactions of its surface receptors. To truly understand the ...

Characterizing Individual Protein Aggregates by Infrared Nanospectroscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy

The phenomenon of protein misfolding and aggregation results in the formation of highly heterogeneous protein aggregates, which are associated with neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer&#8217;s and Parkinson&#8217;s diseases. In particular low molecular weight aggregates, amyloid oligomers, have been shown to possess generic cytotoxic properties and are implicated as neurotoxins in many forms of dementia. We illustrate the use of methods based on atomic force microscopy (AFM) to address the challenging task of characterizing the morphological, structural and chemical properties of these aggregates, which are difficult to study using conventional structural methods or bulk biophysical methods because of their heterogeneity and transient nature. Scanning probe microscopy approaches are now capable of investigating the morphology of amyloid aggregates with sub-nanometer resolution. We show here that infrared (IR) nanospectroscopy (AFM-IR), which simultaneously exploits the high resolution of AFM and the chemical recognition power of IR spectroscopy, can go further and enable the characterization of the structural properties of individual protein aggregates, and thus offer insights into the aggregation mechanisms. Since the approach that we describe can be applied also to the investigations of the interactions of protein assemblies with small molecules and antibodies, it can deliver fundamental information to develop new therapeutic compounds to diagnose or treat neurodegenerative disorders.

We describe the application of infrared nanospectroscopy and high-resolution atomic force microscopy to visualize the process of protein self-assembly into oligomeric aggregates and amyloid fibrils, which is closely associated with the onset and development of a wide range of human neurodegenerative disorders.

The phenomenon of protein misfolding and aggregation results in the formation of highly heterogeneous protein aggregates, which are associated with ...

Production of Dynein and Kinesin Motor Ensembles on DNA Origami Nanostructures for Single Molecule Observation

Cytoskeletal motors are responsible for a wide variety of functions in eukaryotic cells, including mitosis, cargo transport, cellular motility, and others. Many of these functions require motors to operate in ensembles. Despite a wealth of knowledge about the mechanisms of individual cytoskeletal motors, comparatively less is known about the mechanisms and emergent behaviors of motor ensembles, examples of which include changes to ensemble processivity and velocity with changing motor number, location, and configuration. Structural DNA nanotechnology, and the specific technique of DNA origami, enables the molecular construction of well-defined architectures of motor ensembles. The shape of cargo structures as well as the type, number and placement of motors on the structure can all be controlled. Here, we provide detailed protocols for producing these ensembles and observing them using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. Although these techniques have been specifically applied for cytoskeletal motors, the methods are generalizable to other proteins that assemble in complexes to accomplish their tasks. Overall, the DNA origami method for creating well-defined ensembles of motor proteins provides a powerful tool for dissecting the mechanisms that lead to emergent motile behavior.

The goal of this protocol is to form ensembles of molecular motors on DNA origami nanostructures and observe the ensemble motility using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy.

Cytoskeletal motors are responsible for a wide variety of functions in eukaryotic cells, including mitosis, cargo transport, cellular motility, and ...

Visualizing Diffusional Dynamics of Gold Nanorods on Cell Membrane using Single Nanoparticle Darkfield Microscopy

Analyzing the diffusional dynamics of nanoparticles on cell membrane plays a significant role in better understanding the cellular uptake process and provides a theoretical basis for the rational design of nano-medicine delivery. Single particle tracking (SPT) analysis could probe the position and orientation of individual nanoparticles on cell membrane, and reveal their translational and rotational states. Here, we show how to use traditional dark-field microscopy to monitor the dynamics of gold nanorods (AuNRs) on live cell membrane. We also show how to extract the location and orientation of AuNRs using ImageJ and MATLAB, and how to characterize the diffusive states of AuNRs. Statistical analysis of hundreds of particles show that single AuNRs perform Brownian motion on the surface of U87 MG cell membrane. However, individual long trajectory analysis shows that AuNRs have two distinctly different types of motion states on the membrane, namely long-range transport and limited-area confinement. Our SPT methods can be potentially used to study the surface or intracellular particle diffusion in different biological cells and can become a powerful tool for investigations of complex cellular mechanisms.

Here, we show the use of traditional dark-field microscopy to monitor the dynamics of gold nanorods (AuNRs) on cell membrane. The location and orientation of single AuNRs are detected using ImageJ and MATLAB, and the diffusive states of AuNRs are characterized by single particle tracking analysis.

Analyzing the diffusional dynamics of nanoparticles on cell membrane plays a significant role in better understanding the cellular uptake process and ...