This work was supported by Tufts University and by a generous gift from Dr. James Kanagy. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program under Grant No. (DGE-1325256) that was awarded to S.C.F. D.J.W. was supported by a U.S. Department of Education GAANN fellowship. We thank Dr. Jeremy Schonhorn (JanaCare), Dr. Jason Rolland (Carbon3D), and Rachel Deraney (Brown University) for helping develop the design of the three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic device and immunoassay.

1. Preparation of Paper-based Microfluidic Device Layers
<ol>
	<li>Prepare patterns for layers of paper, nylon, and adhesive using a graphic design software program.6 Each layer may have a different pattern. 
	NOTE: The pattern may include alignment holes that are not required for a functional paper-based immunoassay, but assist with the reproducible manufacture of three-dimensional devices. Placement of these holes will differ if devices are assembled individually, in strips, or as full sheets. The software program used to design patterns may vary based on the choice of patterning technique (e.g., photolithography, wax printing, or cutting).6</li>
	<li>Spray the work area with a solution of 70% (v/v) ethanol and water. Wipe the work area with a clean paper towel.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Paper Layers: Sample Addition, Conjugate Storage, Incubation, and Wash Layers
<ol>
	<li>Prepare layers of qualitative filter paper using a large tabletop paper cutter. Cut a stock sheet of paper into a standard paper size to facilitate patterning using a solid ink (wax) printer. For example, a single 460 x 570 mm2 sheet can make 4 sheets of US Letter paper (8.5 x 11 inches2). Handle paper with clean gloves at all times to minimize contamination.</li>
	<li>Load a cut sheet of chromatography paper into the printer tray. Print previously designed layers (see Figure 1). 
	NOTE: A pattern can be printed directly onto this sheet using the automatic feed. Only one sheet of paper should be printed at a time to avoid paper jams. For all layers, use the &#34;Enhanced&#34; print settings.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of Nylon Membrane Layer: Capture Layer
<ol>
	<li>Cut the stock roll of nylon membrane into sheets (7.5 x 10 inches2) using a tabletop paper cutter. Take great care in handling the nylon membrane to maintain its integrity and protect against ripping. Store any unused material in a desiccator cabinet, as nylon membranes are moisture sensitive. 
	NOTE: Cut sheets are narrower than US Letter paper. Because nylon membranes are thin and fragile, they cannot be processed by the printer directly and require support. Details are discussed below.</li>
	<li>Using a wax printer, print a capture layer pattern onto a piece of copy paper and tape it to a light box to serve as a guide for the positioning of the nylon membrane. The light box aids the alignment of multiple layers.</li>
	<li>Place a clean sheet of copy paper onto the previously printed sheet of copy paper. Tape the clean sheet of paper to the light box, but do not tape the two sheets together.</li>
	<li>Place a cut sheet of nylon membrane onto the clean piece of copy paper. Make sure that membrane covers the printed area of the bottom layer of copy paper. Tape all four sides of the nylon membrane to the clean sheet of copy paper. 
	NOTE: Make sure that the nylon membrane is flat and smooth so that there are no problems with printing (e.g., paper jams or uneven printing of wax). Wax may be printed on the tape where the nylon membrane is attached to the copy paper. If this occurs, areas where nylon is incompletely patterned due to tape coverage should be discarded. For future preparations, larger pieces of nylon membrane can be used to avoid this printing error.</li>
	<li>Load a sheet of nylon membrane (supported by the copy paper affixed to it) into the manual feed printer tray. Print only one sheet of nylon membrane at a time. 
	NOTE: There are no preparation steps required for the blot layer, as it is not patterned.</li>
</ol>
4. Creating Hydrophobic Barriers in the Printed Layer
<ol>
	<li>Tape the printed layers onto an acrylic frame for even heating above and below the layer when placed in a gravity convection oven. Keep the nylon membrane taped to the support sheet of copy paper until after the wax is melted and hydrophobic barriers are formed. 
	NOTE: The acrylic frame is a custom-made, laser cut piece of 1/2&#34; thick acrylic plastic. Two frame sizes depending on the number of devices being fabricated were used. The outer border of the smaller frame measures 11 5/8&#34; x 2 3/4&#34;, and the inner hole of the frame measures 10 3/8&#34; x 1 3/4&#34;. The outer border of the larger frame measures 11 5/8&#34; x 8 7/8&#34;, and the inner hole of the frame measures 10 1/4&#34; x 7 7/8&#34;. The open, inner space allows for even melting of wax through the entire thickness of the paper.</li>
	<li>Place the layers in the oven at 150 &#176;C for 30 sec until the wax melts into the thickness of the paper. Confirm that the wax has permeated the thickness of the paper by turning it over and checking for imperfections in the design. 
	NOTE: Forced air ovens or hot plates may also be used to melt the solid wax ink. Melting times or temperatures may vary depending on the heating method.</li>
	<li>Remove the paper and nylon membrane from the acrylic frame. Also, remove nylon membrane from support sheet of copy paper.</li>
</ol>
5. Preparation of Adhesive Layers
<ol>
	<li>Pattern double-sided sheets of adhesive films using a robotic knife plotter, using design files previously prepared (step 1.1). Protect any exposed adhesive surface using a sheet of wax liner. 
	NOTE: The double-sided adhesive should be patterned with holes that allow the sample to flow through layers as a continuous fluidic pathway. The wax liner is easily removed from the adhesive, and serves to protect it from contamination and tearing during cutting. A laser cutter or die press may also be used to pattern layers of adhesive films.</li>
</ol>
6. Backing of Device Layers with Adhesive
<ol>
	<li>Spray the light box with a solution of 70% (v/v) ethanol and water. Wipe with a clean paper towel.</li>
	<li>Tape a patterned layer of paper or nylon membrane that needs to be backed with adhesive onto the light box with the printed side down.</li>
	<li>Peel one side of protective liner from the patterned sheet of adhesive and affix it to the layer of paper or nylon membrane. Use the light box to ensure proper alignment of patterns. Press together. Place the partially assembled device into a protective slip. 
	NOTE: The protective slip is a folded piece of lamination film backing that protects the devices from contamination or damage by ensuring that they do not contact the laminator rollers.</li>
	<li>Pass the resulting two-layer assembly through an automated laminator to completely press the adhesive and paper together, removing any pockets of air from the adjoined layers. 
	NOTE: Air pockets between the layers of the device can interfere with device integrity and wicking reproducibility by causing leaks.</li>
</ol>
7. Treatment of Conjugate Layer with Reagents for Immunoassays Prior to Device Assembly
<ol>
	<li>Tape conjugate layer onto an acrylic frame such that the hydrophilic zone to be treated is suspended and not in contact with the frame.</li>
	<li>Add 2.5 &#181;l of 100 mg/ml bovine serum albumin (BSA) in 1x phosphate buffered saline (PBS) to the hydrophilic zone on the conjugate layer. Allow it to dry at room temperature for 2 min and then at 65 &#176;C for 5 min. 
	NOTE: This volume is just enough to wet the zone of the paper. The BSA solution helps to prevent aggregation of the colloidal nanoparticles during the drying process, which will facilitate the release of the nanoparticles when the paper and reagents are rehydrated by the sample.</li>
	<li>Add 5 &#181;l of 5 O.D. colloidal gold nanoparticle conjugated to anti-&#946;-hCG antibody, and repeat the drying process. 
	NOTE: The units of concentration of colloidal gold nanoparticles are often expressed as optical density (O.D.) as measured by absorbance at &#955; = 540 nm. No treatment is required for the wick pad before device assembly in Section 10.</li>
</ol>
8. Treatment of Lateral Channel with Reagent for Immunoassays Prior to Device Assembly
<ol>
	<li>Tape lateral channel layer onto an acrylic frame such that the hydrophilic zone to be treated is suspended and not in contact with the frame.</li>
	<li>Add 10 &#181;l of blocking agent (5 mg/ml non-fat milk and 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 in 1x PBS) to treat the lateral channel. Repeat the same drying process (2 min at room temperature and then at 65 &#176;C for 5 min) as the conjugate layer.</li>
</ol>
9. Treatment of Capture Layer with Reagents for Immunoassays Prior to Device Assembly
<ol>
	<li>Tape capture layer onto an acrylic frame such that the hydrophilic zone to be treated is suspended and not in contact with the frame.</li>
	<li>Treat the capture layer with 5 &#181;L of 1 mg/ml anti-&#945;-hCG antibody and then allow the sample to dry at room temperature for 2 min followed by 8 min at 65 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Add 2 &#181;L of blocking agent (5 mg/ml non-fat milk and 0.1% (v/v) Tween 20 in 1x PBS). Repeat the drying process for the capture layer. 
	NOTE: This amount is appropriate to coat the papers without occluding the pores of the nylon membrane, which can happen when too much blocking agent is used.</li>
</ol>
10. Assembly of Three-dimensional Paper-based Microfluidic Devices
<ol>
	<li>Tape the wash layer to the light box (printed side facing upwards). If alignment holes are used, remove them from subsequent layers using a handheld hole-punch tool.</li>
	<li>Remove the protective film on the back of the capture layer to expose the adhesive. Align the capture layer above the wash layer using the alignment holes as a guide. Press the two layers together. Avoid touching hydrophilic zones to minimize contamination or damage to the device. Tweezers may be used to assist assembly.</li>
	<li>Remove the protective film on the back of the incubation layer to expose the adhesive. Align the incubation layer above the capture layer and press them together. Continue adding layers in this manner until all active layers are assembled.</li>
	<li>Place the partially assembled device into a protective slip and firmly affix the layers together using a laminator.</li>
	<li>Remove the protective film on the back of the wash layer and affix the blot layer to the bottom of the device. Repeat lamination step 10.4 to complete the assembly of the three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic device. Cut desired number of devices from strips or sheets of fully-assembled devices using scissors. 
	NOTE: Full sheets of devices, strips of devices, or single devices may be prepared using a similar approach.</li>
</ol>
11. Performing a Paper-based Immunoassay
<ol>
	<li>Add 20 &#181;l of a sample to the hydrophilic zone on top of the device (i.e., the sample layer).</li>
	<li>Wait for the sample to wick completely into the device, then add 15 &#181;l of wash buffer (0.05% v/v Tween 20 in 1x phosphate buffered saline). After the first aliquot of wash buffer has wicked completely into the device, add a second 15 &#181;l aliquot of wash buffer. 
	NOTE: The wash buffer has completely wicked into the device when the liquid droplet has disappeared, showing no meniscus on the surface of the paper. The assay is complete when the second aliquot of wash buffer has completely entered the device.</li>
	<li>To reveal the results of the assay, peel away the three top layers of the device using tweezers to expose the capture layer.
	<ol>
		<li>Interpret the results of the assay qualitatively by observing the presence or absence of color. Alternatively, image the readout layer using a desktop scanner and use image processing software or algorithms to quantify results and characterize the distributions of intensity within a detection zone.20</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Identifying a reproducible manufacturing strategy is an essential component of assay development.22 We use a sequential, layer-by-layer approach to manufacture three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic devices. In contrast to those methods that apply folding or origami techniques to produce multilayer devices from a single sheet of paper23,24 additive manufacturing offers a number of advantages: (i) Multiple materials can be incorporated ...

Paper is widely available in a range of formulations or grades, can be functionalized to tune its properties, and can transport fluids autonomously by capillary action or wicking. If paper is patterned with a hydrophobic substance (e.g., photoresist1 or wax2), the wicking of fluids can be controlled spatially within a layer of paper. For example, an applied aqueous sample can be directed into a number of different zones to react with chemical and biochemical reagents stored within the paper. These paper-based microfluidic devices have been demonstrated to be a useful platform for the development of portable and inexpensive analytical assays3,4,5,6,7. Applications of paper-based microfluidic devices include point-of-care diagnostics8, monitoring of environmental contaminants9, detection of counterfeit pharmaceuticals10, and delocalized healthcare (or &#34;telemedicine&#34;) in limited-resource settings11.
Multiple layers of patterned paper can be assembled into an integrated device where hydrophilic zones from neighboring layers (i.e., above or below) connect to form continuous fluidic networks whose inlets and outlets may be coupled or left independent.12 Each layer can comprise a unique pattern, which enables the spatial separation of reagents and multiple assays to be performed on a single device. The resulting three-dimensional microfluidic device is not only capable of wicking fluids to enable analytical assays (e.g., liver function tests13 and electrochemical detection of small molecules14), but it can also support a number of sophisticated functions (e.g., valves15 and simple machines16) common to traditional microfluidic approaches. Importantly, because paper wicks fluids by capillary action, these devices can be operated with minimal effort from the user.
Since reagents can be stored within the three-dimensional architecture of a paper-based device, complex protocols can be reduced to a single addition of aqueous sample to a device. Recently, we introduced a general three-dimensional device architecture that can be used for the development of paper-based immunoassays using the wax-printing technique to create patterned layers.17,18 These studies focused on how aspects related to the design of the device-number of stacked layers used, composition of the layers, and the pattern of the three-dimensional microfluidic network-controlled the overall performance of the immunoassay. Ultimately, we were able to use these design rules to facilitate the rapid development of a multiplexed immunoassay19. In this manuscript, a previously developed immunoassay for human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG; pregnancy hormone)17 is used as an example to illustrate the strategies that we have developed for the assembly and manufacture of three-dimensional paper-based immunoassays. Accordingly, we focus on the assembly and operation of a device rather than the development of an assay.
In a sandwich immunoassay, which is the format used to detect hCG, a capture antibody specific to one subunit of the hormone is coated onto a solid substrate, which is then blocked to limit the non-specific adsorption of a sample or any subsequent reagent. This substrate is most often a polystyrene microwell plate (e.g., for an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or ELISA). The sample is then added to a well and allowed to incubate for a period of time. After rigorous washing, an antibody specific to the other subunit of hCG is added and allowed to incubate. This detection antibody may be conjugated to a colloidal particle, enzyme, or fluorophore in order to produce a measurable signal. The well is again washed prior to interpreting the results of an assay (e.g., using a plate reader). While commercial kits rely on this time-consuming multistep process, all of these steps can be performed rapidly in paper-based microfluidic devices with minimal intervention to the user.
The device used for the hCG immunoassay comprises six active layers, which are, from top to bottom, used for sample addition, conjugate storage, incubation, capture, wash, and blot (Figure 1). The sample addition layer is made from qualitative filter paper. It facilitates the introduction of a liquid sample and protects the reagents in the conjugate layer from contamination from the environment or accidental contact by the user. The conjugate layer (qualitative filter paper) holds the color-producing reagent (e.g., colloidal gold-labeled antibody) for the immunoassay. The incubation layer (qualitative filter paper) allows the sample to travel laterally within the plane of the paper to promote binding of the analyte with reagents before reaching the next layer, the capture layer. The capture layer (nylon membrane) contains ligands specific for the analyte adsorbed to the material. After the assay is completed, this layer is revealed to enable visualization of the completed immunocomplex. The wash layer (qualitative filter paper) draws excess fluids including free conjugate reagents away from the face of the capture layer into the blot layer (thick chromatography paper). The six-layer device is held together by five layers of patterned, double-sided adhesive: four layers of permanent adhesive maintain the integrity of the assembled device and one layer of removable adhesive facilitates peeling of the device to inspect the results of the immunoassay on the capture layer.
For the purpose of this manuscript, we use only negative and positive control samples of hCG (0 mIU/mL and 81 mIU/mL, respectively) to provide representative results of a paper-based immunoassay, which permits a dedicated discussion of the relationship between fabrication methods and the performance of a device. In addition to demonstrating how to manufacture devices successfully, we highlight several manufacturing errors that could lead to the failure of a device or irreproducible assay results. The protocol and discussion detailed in this manuscript will provide researchers with valuable insight into how paper-based immunoassays are designed and fabricated. While we focus our demonstration on immunoassays, we anticipate that the guidelines presented herein will be broadly useful for the manufacture of three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic devices.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1059">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Illustrator CC</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Adobe</td>
			<td style="width:175px;"></td>
			<td style="width:304px;">to design patterns for layers of paper and adhesive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Xerox ColorQube 8580 printer</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Amazon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">B00R92C9DI</td>
			<td>to print wax patterns onto layers of paper and Nylon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Isotemp General Purpose Heating and Drying Oven</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">15-103-0509</td>
			<td>to melt wax into paper</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Artograph LightTracer</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Amazon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">B000KNHRH6</td>
			<td>to assist with alignment of layers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Apache AL13P laminator</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Amazon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">B00AXHSZU2</td>
			<td>to laminate layers together</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Graphtec CE6000 Cutting Plotter</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Graphtec America</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">CE6000-40</td>
			<td>to pattern adhesive films</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Swingline paper cutter</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Amazon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">B0006VNY4C</td>
			<td>to cut paper or devices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Epson Perfection V500 photo scanner</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Amazon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">B000VG4AY0</td>
			<td>to scan images of readout layer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">economy plier-action hole punch</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>3488A9</td>
			<td>to remove alignment holes&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Whatman chromatogrpahy paper, Grade 4</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>WHA1004917</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Fisherbrand chromatography paper (thick)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-714-4</td>
			<td>to function as blot layer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Immunodyne ABC (0.45 &#181;m pore size )</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Pall Corporation</td>
			<td>NBCHI3R</td>
			<td>to function as material for capture layer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">removable/permanent adhesive-double faced liner</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">FLEXcon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">DF021621</td>
			<td>to facilitate peeling</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">permanent adhesive-double faced liner</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">FLEXcon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">DF051521</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="18">
			<td height="18" style="height:19px;width:447px;">wax liner</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">FLEXcon</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">FLEXMARK 80 D/F PFW LINER</td>
			<td>to assist with patterning adhesive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">acrylic sheet</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">8560K266&#160;</td>
			<td>to fabricate frame</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">self-adhesive sheets</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fellowes</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">CRC52215</td>
			<td>to use as protective slip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">absolute ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">89125-172</td>
			<td>to sanitize work area</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">AMRESCO</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">0332</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sekisui Diagnostics OSOM hCG Urine Controls</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22-071-066</td>
			<td>to use as positive and negative samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">anti-&#946;-hCG monoclonal antibody colloidal gold conjugate (clone 1)</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Arista Biologicals&#160;</td>
			<td>CGBCG-0701</td>
			<td>to treat conjugate layer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">goat anti-&#945;-hCG antibody</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Arista Biologicals&#160;</td>
			<td>ABACG-0500</td>
			<td>to treat capture layer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">10X phosphate buffered saline</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">BP3991</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Oxoid skim milk powder</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">OXLP0031B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:447px;">Tween 20</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">AMRESCO</td>
			<td style="width:175px;">M147</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fabrication of three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic devices for immunoassays

Paper wicks fluids autonomously due to capillary action. By patterning paper with hydrophobic barriers, the transport of fluids can be controlled and directed within a layer of paper. Moreover, stacking multiple layers of patterned paper creates sophisticated three-dimensional microfluidic networks that can support the development of analytical and bioanalytical assays. Paper-based microfluidic devices are inexpensive, portable, easy to use, and require no external equipment to operate. As a result, they hold great promise as a platform for point-of-care diagnostics. In order to properly evaluate the utility and analytical performance of paper-based devices, suitable methods must be developed to ensure their manufacture is reproducible and at a scale that is appropriate for laboratory settings. In this manuscript, a method to fabricate a general device architecture that can be used for paper-based immunoassays is described. We use a form of additive manufacturing (multi-layer lamination) to prepare devices that comprise multiple layers of patterned paper and patterned adhesive. In addition to demonstrating the proper use of these three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic devices with an immunoassay for human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), errors in the manufacturing process that may result in device failures are discussed. We expect this approach to manufacturing paper-based devices will find broad utility in the development of analytical applications designed specifically for limited-resource settings.

Obtaining reproducible assay performances in three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic devices relies on a fabrication method that ensures consistency among devices. Towards this goal, we have identified a number of manufacturing processes and material considerations, and discuss them here in the context of demonstrating a paper-based immunoassay. We use a wax printing method to form hydrophobic barriers within paper-based microfluidic devices (Figure 2A).<sup class="xre...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication of Three-dimensional Paper-based Microfluidic Devices for Immunoassays at JoVE.com

Fabrication of Three-dimensional Paper-based Microfluidic Devices for Immunoassays

We detail a method to fabricate three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic devices for use in the development of immunoassays. Our approach to device assembly is a type of multilayer, additive manufacturing. We demonstrate a sandwich immunoassay to provide representative results for these types of paper-based devices.

Paper wicks fluids autonomously due to capillary action. By patterning paper with hydrophobic barriers, the transport of fluids can be controlled and ...

fabrication-three-dimensional-paper-based-microfluidic-devices-for

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

15.6K Views.  Tufts University. We detail a method to fabricate three-dimensional paper-based microfluidic devices for use in the development of immunoassays. Our approach to device assembly is a type of multilayer, additive manufacturing. We demonstrate a sandwich immunoassay to provide representative results for these types of paper-based devices.

Video: Fabrication of Three-dimensional Paper-based Microfluidic Devices for Immunoassays

Planar and Three-Dimensional Printing of Conductive Inks

Printed electronics rely on low-cost, large-area fabrication routes to create flexible or multidimensional electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical devices1-3. In this paper, we focus on one- (1D), two- (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) printing of conductive metallic inks in the form of flexible, stretchable, and spanning microelectrodes.
Direct-write assembly4,5 is a 1-to-3D printing technique that enables the fabrication of features ranging from simple lines to complex structures by the deposition of concentrated inks through fine nozzles (~0.1 - 250 &mu;m). This printing method consists of a computer-controlled 3-axis translation stage, an ink reservoir and nozzle, and 10x telescopic lens for visualization. Unlike inkjet printing, a droplet-based process, direct-write assembly involves the extrusion of ink filaments either in- or out-of-plane. The printed filaments typically conform to the nozzle size. Hence, microscale features (&lt; 1 &mu;m) can be patterned and assembled into larger arrays and multidimensional architectures.
In this paper, we first synthesize a highly concentrated silver nanoparticle ink for planar and 3D printing via direct-write assembly. Next, a standard protocol for printing microelectrodes in multidimensional motifs is demonstrated. Finally, applications of printed microelectrodes for electrically small antennas, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes are highlighted.

Planar and three-dimensional printing of conductive metallic inks is described. Our approach provides new avenues for fabricating printed electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical devices in unusual layouts at the microscale.

Printed electronics rely on low-cost, large-area fabrication routes to create flexible or multidimensional electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical ...

Simple Microfluidic Devices for in vivo Imaging of C. elegans, Drosophila and Zebrafish

Micro fabricated fluidic devices provide an accessible micro-environment for in vivo studies on small organisms. Simple fabrication processes are available for microfluidic devices using soft lithography techniques 1-3. Microfluidic devices have been used for sub-cellular imaging 4,5, in vivo laser microsurgery 2,6 and cellular imaging 4,7. In vivo imaging requires immobilization of organisms. This has been achieved using suction 5,8, tapered channels 6,7,9, deformable membranes 2-4,10, suction with additional cooling 5, anesthetic gas 11, temperature sensitive gels 12, cyanoacrylate glue 13 and anesthetics such as levamisole 14,15. Commonly used anesthetics influence synaptic transmission 16,17 and are known to have detrimental effects on sub-cellular neuronal transport 4. In this study we demonstrate a membrane based poly-dimethyl-siloxane (PDMS) device that allows anesthetic free immobilization of intact genetic model organisms such as Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), Drosophila larvae and zebrafish larvae. These model organisms are suitable for in vivo studies in microfluidic devices because of their small diameters and optically transparent or translucent bodies. Body diameters range from ~10 &mu;m to ~800 &mu;m for early larval stages of C. elegans and zebrafish larvae and require microfluidic devices of different sizes to achieve complete immobilization for high resolution time-lapse imaging. These organisms are immobilized using pressure applied by compressed nitrogen gas through a liquid column and imaged using an inverted microscope. Animals released from the trap return to normal locomotion within 10 min.
We demonstrate four applications of time-lapse imaging in C. elegans namely, imaging mitochondrial transport in neurons, pre-synaptic vesicle transport in a transport-defective mutant, glutamate receptor transport and Q neuroblast cell division. Data obtained from such movies show that microfluidic immobilization is a useful and accurate means of acquiring in vivo data of cellular and sub-cellular events when compared to anesthetized animals (Figure 1J and 3C-F 4).
Device dimensions were altered to allow time-lapse imaging of different stages of C. elegans, first instar Drosophila larvae and zebrafish larvae. Transport of vesicles marked with synaptotagmin tagged with GFP (syt.eGFP) in sensory neurons shows directed motion of synaptic vesicle markers expressed in cholinergic sensory neurons in intact first instar Drosophila larvae. A similar device has been used to carry out time-lapse imaging of heartbeat in ~30 hr post fertilization (hpf) zebrafish larvae. These data show that the simple devices we have developed can be applied to a variety of model systems to study several cell biological and developmental phenomena in vivo.

Simple Microfluidic Devices for in vivo Imaging of C. elegans, Drosophila and Zebrafish

A simple microfluidic device has been developed to perform anesthetic free in vivo imaging of C. elegans, intact Drosophila larvae and zebrafish larvae. The device utilizes a deformable PDMS membrane to immobilize these model organisms in order to perform time lapse imaging of numerous processes such as heart beat, cell division and sub-cellular neuronal transport. We demonstrate the use of this device and show examples of different types of data collected from different model systems.

Micro fabricated fluidic devices provide an accessible micro-environment for in vivo studies on small organisms. Simple fabrication processes are ...

Human Cartilage Tissue Fabrication Using Three-dimensional Inkjet Printing Technology

Bioprinting, which is based on thermal inkjet printing, is one of the most attractive enabling technologies in the field of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. With digital control&#160;cells, scaffolds, and growth factors can be precisely deposited to the desired two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) locations rapidly. Therefore, this technology is an ideal approach to fabricate tissues mimicking their native anatomic structures. In order to engineer cartilage with native zonal organization, extracellular matrix composition (ECM), and mechanical properties, we developed a bioprinting platform using a commercial inkjet printer with simultaneous photopolymerization capable for 3D cartilage tissue engineering. Human chondrocytes suspended in poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) were printed for 3D neocartilage construction via layer-by-layer assembly. The printed cells were fixed at their original deposited positions, supported by the surrounding scaffold in simultaneous photopolymerization. The mechanical properties of the printed tissue were similar to the native cartilage. Compared to conventional tissue fabrication, which requires longer UV exposure, the viability of the printed cells with simultaneous photopolymerization was significantly higher. Printed neocartilage demonstrated excellent glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen type II production, which was consistent with gene expression. Therefore, this platform is ideal for accurate cell distribution and arrangement for anatomic tissue engineering.

The methods described in this paper show how to convert a commercial inkjet printer into a bioprinter with simultaneous UV polymerization. The printer is capable of constructing 3D tissue structure with cells and biomaterials. The study demonstrated here constructed a 3D neocartilage.

Bioprinting, which is based on thermal inkjet printing, is one of the most attractive enabling technologies in the field of tissue engineering and ...

Analysis of Cell Migration within a Three-dimensional Collagen Matrix

The ability to migrate is a hallmark of various cell types and plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including&#160;embryonic development, wound healing, and immune responses. However, cell migration is also a key mechanism in cancer enabling these cancer cells to detach from the primary tumor to start metastatic spreading. Within the past years various cell migration assays have been developed to analyze the migratory behavior of different cell types. Because the locomotory behavior of cells markedly differs between a two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) environment it can be assumed that the analysis of the migration of cells that are embedded within a 3D environment would yield in more significant cell migration data. The advantage of the described 3D collagen matrix migration assay is that cells are embedded within a physiological 3D network of collagen fibers representing the major component of the extracellular matrix. Due to time-lapse video microscopy real cell migration is measured allowing the determination of several migration parameters as well as their alterations in response to pro-migratory factors or inhibitors. Various cell types could be analyzed using this technique, including lymphocytes/leukocytes, stem cells, and tumor cells. Likewise, also cell clusters or spheroids could be embedded within the collagen matrix concomitant with analysis of the emigration of single cells from the cell cluster/ spheroid into the collagen lattice. We conclude that the 3D collagen matrix migration assay is a versatile method to analyze the migration of cells within a physiological-like 3D environment.

Cell migration is a biological phenomenon that is involved in a plethora of physiological, such as wound healing and immune responses, and pathophysiological processes, like cancer. The 3D-collagen matrix migration assay is a versatile tool to analyze the migratory properties of different cell types within in a 3D physiological-like environment.

The ability to migrate is a hallmark of various cell types and plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including&#160;embryonic ...

Paper-based Devices for Isolation and Characterization of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), membranous particles released from various types of cells, hold a great potential for clinical applications. They contain nucleic acid and protein cargo and are increasingly recognized as a means of intercellular communication utilized by both eukaryote and prokaryote cells. However, due to their small size, current protocols for isolation of EVs are often time consuming, cumbersome, and require large sample volumes and expensive equipment, such as an ultracentrifuge. To address these limitations, we developed a paper-based immunoaffinity platform for separating subgroups of EVs that is easy, efficient, and requires sample volumes as low as 10 &#956;l. Biological samples can be pipetted directly onto paper test zones that have been chemically modified with capture molecules that have high affinity to specific EV surface markers. We validate the assay by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), paper-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (P-ELISA), and transcriptome analysis. These paper-based devices will enable the study of EVs in the clinic and the research setting to help advance our understanding of EV functions in health and disease.

This protocol details a method to isolate extracellular vesicles (EVs), small membranous particles released from cells, from as little as 10 &#956;l serum samples. This approach circumvents the need for ultracentrifugation, requires only a few minutes of assay time, and enables the isolation of EVs from samples of limited volumes.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), membranous particles released from various types of cells, hold a great potential for clinical applications. They contain ...

Layer-by-layer Collagen Deposition in Microfluidic Devices for Microtissue Stabilization

Although microfluidics provides exquisite control of the cellular microenvironment, culturing cells within microfluidic devices can be challenging. 3D culture of cells in collagen type I gels helps to stabilize cell morphology and function, which is necessary for creating microfluidic tissue models in microdevices. Translating traditional 3D culture techniques for tissue culture plates to microfluidic devices is often difficult because of the limited channel dimensions. In this method, we describe a technique for modifying native type I collagen to generate polycationic and polyanionic collagen solutions that can be used with layer-by-layer deposition to create ultrathin collagen assemblies on top of cells cultured in microfluidic devices. These thin collagen layers stabilize cell morphology and function, as shown using primary hepatocytes as an example cell, allowing for the long term culture of microtissues in microfluidic devices.

The creation of functional microtissues within microfluidic devices requires the stabilization of cell phenotypes by adapting traditional cell culture techniques to the limited spatial dimensions in microdevices. Modification of collagen allows the layer-by-layer deposition of ultrathin collagen assemblies that can stabilize primary cells, such as hepatocytes, as microfluidic tissue models.

Although microfluidics provides exquisite control of the cellular microenvironment, culturing cells within microfluidic devices can be challenging. 3D ...

Using Adhesive Patterning to Construct 3D Paper Microfluidic Devices

We demonstrate the use of patterned aerosol adhesives to construct both planar and nonplanar 3D paper microfluidic devices. By spraying an aerosol adhesive through a metal stencil, the overall amount of adhesive used in assembling paper microfluidic devices can be significantly reduced. We show on a simple 4-layer planar paper microfluidic device that the optimal adhesive application technique and device construction style depends heavily on desired performance characteristics. By moderately increasing the overall area of a device, it is possible to dramatically decrease the wicking time and increase device success rates while also reducing the amount of adhesive required to keep the device together. Such adhesive application also causes the adhesive to form semi-permanent bonds instead of permanent bonds between paper layers, enabling single-use devices to be non-destructively disassembled after use. Nonplanar 3D origami devices also benefit from the semi-permanent bonds during folding, as it reduces the likelihood that unrelated faces may accidently stick together. Like planar devices, nonplanar structures see reduced wicking times with patterned adhesive application vs uniformly applied adhesive.

We demonstrate the use of patterned aerosol adhesives to construct 3D paper microfluidic devices. This method of adhesive application forms semi-permanent bonds between layers, enabling single-use devices to be non-destructively disassembled after use and to ease folding complex nonplanar structures.

We demonstrate the use of patterned aerosol adhesives to construct both planar and nonplanar 3D paper microfluidic devices. By spraying an aerosol ...

Fabrication of Inverted Colloidal Crystal Poly(ethylene glycol) Scaffold: A Three-dimensional Cell Culture Platform for Liver Tissue Engineering

The ability to maintain hepatocyte function in vitro, for the purpose of testing xenobiotics&#39; cytotoxicity, studying virus infection and developing drugs targeted at the liver, requires a platform in which cells receive proper biochemical and mechanical cues. Recent liver tissue engineering systems have employed three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds composed of synthetic or natural hydrogels, given their high water retention and their ability to provide the mechanical stimuli needed by the cells. There has been growing interest in the inverted colloidal crystal (ICC) scaffold, a recent development, which allows high spatial organization, homotypic and heterotypic cell interaction, as well as cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interaction. Herein, we describe a protocol to fabricate the ICC scaffold using poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) and the particle leaching method. Briefly, a lattice is made from microsphere particles, after which a pre-polymer solution is added, properly polymerized, and the particles are then removed, or leached, using an organic solvent (e.g., tetrahydrofuran). The dissolution of the lattice results in a highly porous scaffold with controlled pore sizes and interconnectivities that allow media to reach cells more easily. This unique structure allows high surface area for the cells to adhere to as well as easy communication between pores, and the ability to coat the PEGDA ICC scaffold with proteins also shows a marked effect on cell performance. We analyze the morphology of the scaffold as well as the hepatocarcinoma cell (Huh-7.5) behavior in terms of viability and function to explore the effect of ICC structure and ECM coatings. Overall, this paper provides a detailed protocol of an emerging scaffold that has wide applications in tissue engineering, especially liver tissue engineering.

Fabrication of Inverted Colloidal Crystal Polyethylene glycol Scaffold: A Three-dimensional Cell Culture Platform for Liver Tissue Engineering

This manuscript presents a detailed protocol for the fabrication of an emerging three-dimensional hepatocyte culture platform, the inverted colloidal crystal scaffold, and the concomitant techniques to assess hepatocyte behavior. The size-controllable pores, interconnectivity and ability to conjugate extracellular matrix proteins to the poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) scaffold enhance Huh-7.5 cell performance.

The ability to maintain hepatocyte function in vitro, for the purpose of testing xenobiotics&#39; cytotoxicity, studying virus infection and developing ...

Multi-step Variable Height Photolithography for Valved Multilayer Microfluidic Devices

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to entry for non-specialists who would benefit greatly from the ability to develop their own microfluidic devices to address research questions. Particularly lacking has been the open dissemination of protocols related to photolithography, a key step in the development of a replica mold for the manufacture of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices. While the fabrication of single height silicon masters has been explored extensively in literature, fabrication steps for more complicated photolithography features necessary for many interesting device functionalities (such as feature rounding to make valve structures, multi-height single-mold patterning, or high aspect ratio definition) are often not explicitly outlined. 
Here, we provide a complete protocol for making multilayer microfluidic devices with valves and complex multi-height geometries, tunable for any application. These fabrication procedures are presented in the context of a microfluidic hydrogel bead synthesizer and demonstrate the production of droplets containing polyethylene glycol (PEG diacrylate) and a photoinitiator that can be polymerized into solid beads. This protocol and accompanying discussion provide a foundation of design principles and fabrication methods that enables development of a wide variety of microfluidic devices. The details included here should allow non-specialists to design and fabricate novel devices, thereby bringing a host of recently developed technologies to their most exciting applications in biological laboratories.

Multilayer microfluidic devices often involve the fabrication of master molds with complex geometries for functionality. This article presents a complete protocol for multi-step photolithography with valves and variable height features tunable to any application. As a demonstration, we fabricate a microfluidic droplet generator capable of producing hydrogel beads.

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to ...

A Simple and Scalable Fabrication Method for Organic Electronic Devices on Textiles

Today, wearable electronics devices combine a large variety of functional, stretchable, and flexible technologies. However, in many cases, these devices cannot be worn under everyday conditions. Therefore, textiles are commonly considered the best substrate to accommodate electronic devices in wearable use. In this paper, we describe how to selectively pattern organic electroactive materials on textiles from a solution in an easy and scalable manner. This versatile deposition technique enables the fabrication of wearable organic electronic devices on clothes.

In this paper, we present a protocol to selectively deposit organic materials on textiles, which allows for the direct integration of organic electronic devices with wearables. The fabricated devices can be fully integrated in textiles, respecting their mechanical appearance and enabling sensing capabilities.

Today, wearable electronics devices combine a large variety of functional, stretchable, and flexible technologies. However, in many cases, these devices ...

Fabrication of Three-dimensional Paper-based Microfluidic Devices for Immunoassays

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Rozdziały w tym wideo

Planar and Three-Dimensional Printing of Conductive Inks

Simple Microfluidic Devices for in vivo Imaging of C. elegans, Drosophila and Zebrafish

Human Cartilage Tissue Fabrication Using Three-dimensional Inkjet Printing Technology

Analysis of Cell Migration within a Three-dimensional Collagen Matrix

Paper-based Devices for Isolation and Characterization of Extracellular Vesicles

Layer-by-layer Collagen Deposition in Microfluidic Devices for Microtissue Stabilization

Using Adhesive Patterning to Construct 3D Paper Microfluidic Devices

Fabrication of Inverted Colloidal Crystal Poly(ethylene glycol) Scaffold: A Three-dimensional Cell Culture Platform for Liver Tissue Engineering

Multi-step Variable Height Photolithography for Valved Multilayer Microfluidic Devices

A Simple and Scalable Fabrication Method for Organic Electronic Devices on Textiles