Diese Arbeit wurde durch Zuschüsse aus Consejo Nacional de Ciencias y Tecnología-México (CONACyT-Mexico) (82.614, 153.998, 253.549 und 178.359 in Investigación Científica Básica sowie 118 in Investigación en Fronteras de la Ciencia) und von Dirección General de unterstützt Asuntos de Personal Académico-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM DGAPA-; PAPIIT IN202616, IN203612).

<ol>
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B., Allen, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microvolume+Protein+Concentration+Determination+using+the+NanoDrop+2000c+Spectrophotometer.">Microvolume Protein Concentration Determination using the NanoDrop 2000c Spectrophotometer.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (33), e1610 (2009).</li><li>Bligh, E. G., Dyer, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rapid+method+for+total+lipid+extraction+and+purification.">A rapid method for total lipid extraction and purification.</a> Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 37 (8), 911-917 (1959).</li><li>Molecular Dynamics. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Phosphorimager SI User&#180;s Guide. , (1994).</li><li>Dixon, M., Webb, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Enzymes: Third Edition. , (1979).</li><li>Rudolph, A. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression,+characterization,+and+mutagenesis+of+the+Yersinia+pestis+murine+toxin,+a+phospholipase+D+superfamily+member.">Expression, characterization, and mutagenesis of the Yersinia pestis murine toxin, a phospholipase D superfamily member.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 274 (17), 11824-11831 (1999).</li><li>Kato, S., Yoshimura, T., Hemmi, H., Moriyama, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biochemical+analysis+of+a+novel+lipolytic+enzyme+YvdO+from+Bacillus+subtilis.">Biochemical analysis of a novel lipolytic enzyme YvdO from Bacillus subtilis.</a> Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 74 (4), 701-706 (2010).</li><li>Peppelenbosch, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinome+profiling.">Kinome profiling.</a> Scientifica (Cairo). , (2012).</li><li>Manafi, M., Kneifel, W., Bascomb, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorogenic+and+chromogenic+substrates+used+in+bacterial+diagnostics.">Fluorogenic and chromogenic substrates used in bacterial diagnostics.</a> Microbiol. Rev. 55 (3), 335-348 (1991).</li><li>Kuznetsova, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzyme+genomics:+Application+of+general+enzymatic+screens+to+discover+new+enzymes.">Enzyme genomics: Application of general enzymatic screens to discover new enzymes.</a> FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 29 (2), 263-279 (2005).</li><li>Scopes, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Protein Purification, Principles and Practice. , (2010).</li><li>Geiger, O., Lopez-Lara, I. M., Sohlenkamp, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphatidylcholine+biosynthesis+and+function+in+bacteria.">Phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis and function in bacteria.</a> Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1831 (3), 503-513 (2013).</li></ol>

Die Autoren haben nichts zu offenbaren.

In den letzten 20 Jahren haben die Genome vieler Organismen sequenziert worden, und obwohl eine Fülle von Daten Genomsequenz generiert wurde, ist funktionale Auslegung Rückstand und damit behindert unser Verständnis der Genomfunktion. Genfunktionen in Genomen basieren häufig auf Ähnlichkeit mit Genen bekannter Funktion oder Auftreten von konservierten Motive zugeordnet. Jedoch ist die genaue Funktion eines bestimmten Gens häufig nicht bekannt. Insbesondere vorhergesagte strukturelle Gene für Enzyme können nicht ...

Glycerol-basierten Lipiden wie Triglyceriden und (glycero) Phospholipide sind wichtige und wohl die bekanntesten Lipidklassen 1. Triacylglycerolen (TAGs) sind Fette oder Öle, die üblicherweise als Speicherlipiden funktionieren und daher als potentielle Energie und Kohlenstoffquellen. TAGs können durch Lipasen abgebaut werden, die häufig durch den produzierenden Organismus ausgeschieden werden externe TAGs zu verdauen und sie als Kohlenstoffquellen zur Verfügung zu stellen. Auch wurden Lipasen weit über die Jahre studiert aufgrund ihrer wichtigen biotechnologischen Anwendungen 2. Auf Grund ihrer amphiphilen Natur und ihrer nahezu zylindrischen Form, (glycero) Phospholipide weisen membranbildenden Eigenschaften und in der Regel die Hauptlipidkomponenten einer doppelschichtigen Membran 3 bilden. In einfachen Mikroorganismen wie dem Bakterium Escherichia coli, nur drei Hauptkopfgruppe Varianten, Phosphatidylglycerin (PG), Cardiolipin (CL) und phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) angetroffen werden , obwohl man sich bewusst sein sollte , dass jeder von ihnen kann 4 mit einer beträchtlichen Anzahl unterschiedlicher Fettacylketten an der sn - 1 oder sn - 2 - Position, die zu einer großen Anzahl von verschiedenen molekularen Spezies ersetzt werden . Andere Bakterien könnten haben andere Phospholipide zusätzlich oder statt. Zum Beispiel Sinorhizobium meliloti, ein Bodenbakterium, das mit der Leguminosen Luzerne (Medicago sativa) , um eine Stickstoff-fixierenden Knöllchen Symbiose zu bilden, enthält zusätzlich zu PE ein zweites zwitterionisches Phospholipid, Phosphatidylcholin (PC) 5 in der Lage ist. Auch Lipide nicht, die Phosphor oder Glycerin können amphiphile und bilden einen Teil der Zellmembran sein. Beispielsweise von Phosphor beschränkende Wachstumsbedingungen in S. meliloti, (glycero) Phospholipide sind weitgehend durch Membranlipide ersetzt , die nicht Phosphor enthalten, dh Sulfolipide, Ornithin Lipide und diacylglyceryl trimethylhomoserine (DGTS) 6. In Bakterien ist DGTS von Diacylglycerin (DAG) in einem zweistufigen Weg gebildet 7 , aber die Quelle für DAG Generation war nicht klar. Pulse-Chase - Experimente vorgeschlagen , dass PC ein Vorläufer für 8 DGTS sein könnte und mit Hilfe der Methodik in diesem Manuskript beschrieben wir eine Phospholipase C identifizieren konnte (PLCP, SMc00171) , die unter Phosphor einschränkenden Bedingungen gebildet wird , und die PC in DAG umwandeln und Phosphocholin 8. In einer separaten Studie entdeckten wir , dass eine Acyl-CoA - Synthetase (FADD) defizienten Mutante von S. meliloti oder von Escherichia coli freien Fettsäuren akkumuliert , wenn 9 stationären Wachstumsphase eintritt. Obwohl diese Fettsäuren schienen von Membranlipiden abgeleitet werden, die genaue Quelle für die freien Fettsäuren oder die Enzym (e) zu befreien, sie waren nicht bekannt. Auch in diesem Manuskript die Strategie skizziert den Einsatz, zwei Patatin-like 10 (phospho) Lipasen (SMc00930 und SMc01003), die zur Bildung von freien Fettsäuren in S. beigetragen meliloti 11 vorhergesagt wurden. Überraschenderweise verwendet SMc01003 DAG als Substrat Umwandlung in Monoacylglycerin und schließlich 11 Glycerin und freien Fettsäuren. Daher ist SMc01003 eine DAG-Lipase (DGLA). Obwohl eine Reihe von Algorithmen zur Vorhersage Potential (phospho) sind Lipasen 12,13, deren genaue Funktion und physiologische Rolle ist in der Regel nicht bekannt. Hier beschreiben wir ein Protokoll, zu klonen und überexprimiert vorhergesagt oder Potential (phospho) Lipasen. Diese Handschrift wird erläutert, wie Enzymassays können unter Verwendung von künstlichen chromogene Substrate für die überexprimiert (phospho) Lipase entwickelt und optimiert werden. Wir liefern Beispiele, wie mit einem optimierten Enzymtest die reale (phospho) Lipasesubstrats begegnet werden kann und wie diese Erkenntnisse könnten unser Verständnis der mikrobiellen Physiologie bereichern.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9180-03</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9070-03</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic Acid</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9507-05</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hexanes</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9309-02</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diethylether</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>32203</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bidistilled water</td>
			<td>&#160;ANY</td>
			<td>&#160;NA</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris Base</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T-1503</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>9535-02</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>3624-01</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>X-100</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth</td>
			<td>ANY</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth, 10g tryptone + 5g yeast extract + 10g NaCl per liter of bidistilled water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tryptone</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>211705</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>yeast extract</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson and Company</td>
			<td>212750</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TY broth</td>
			<td>ANY</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth, 8g tryptone + 3g yeast extract + 66mg CaCl2 2 H20 per liter of bidistilled water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2 2 H2O</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td>1332-01</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>isopropyl-&#946;-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15529-019</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diethanolamine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D-8885</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MnCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>221279</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phospholipase A2 snake venom</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P0790</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phospholipase C Clostridium perfingrens</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7633</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bis-p-nitrophenyl phosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>07422AH</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl stearate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N3627</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl dodecanoate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>61716</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl decanoate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N0252</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl palmitate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N2752</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl butyrate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>N9876</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p-nitrophenyl octanoate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>21742</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetic Acid, sodium salt [1-14C]</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>NEC084</td>
			<td>Bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>JT Baker</td>
			<td>9224-01</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminium HPTLC silica gel 60 plates. Silica gel HPTLC plates size 20 x 20 cm, 25 sheets.</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>105547</td>
			<td>TLC analysis &#38; Lipid extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrometer UV/VIS Lambda 35</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Storm 820 Phosphorimager</td>
			<td>Molecular Dynamics</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Photostimulable Luminescence scanner&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multipurpose Scintillation Counter</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Radioactivity Quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>French Pressure Cell</td>
			<td>ThermoSpectronic</td>
			<td>NA&#160;</td>
			<td>Breakage of cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>chromatography paper 3MM Chr</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>3030917</td>
			<td>TLC analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sinorhizobium meliloti 1021our</td>
			<td>reference 34</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>studied strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS Competent cells</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69451</td>
			<td>protein expression strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pET9a vector</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69431</td>
			<td>protein expression vector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pET17b vector</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69663</td>
			<td>protein expression vector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sterile polystyrene round-bottom tube (14 ml) Falcon</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>352057</td>
			<td>radiolabeling of bacterial cultures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>polypropylene microcentrifuge tubes (1.5 ml)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>30125.15</td>
			<td>Enzymatic assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D9135</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-&#945;-phosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoyl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P6267</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DL-&#945;-monopalmitin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M1640</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>palmitic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P0500</td>
			<td>lipid standard</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

defining substrate specificities for lipase and phospholipase candidates

Mikroorganismen produzieren ein breites Spektrum von (phospho) Lipasen, die um sezerniert werden für den Organismus externe Substrate zur Verfügung zu stellen. Alternativ können andere (phospho) Lipasen physikalisch mit dem produzierenden Organismus verursacht einen Umsatz von intrinsischen Lipiden assoziiert sein können und häufig zu einem Remodeling der Zellmembranen führt. Obwohl Potential (phospho) Lipasen mit einer Anzahl von Algorithmen vorhergesagt werden, wenn das Gen / Protein-Sequenz verfügbar ist, experimentelle Nachweis der Enzymaktivitäten, Substratspezifitäten, und potentielle physiologische Funktionen ist häufig nicht erhalten werden. Dieses Manuskript beschreibt die Optimierung der Testbedingungen für Interessenten (phospho) Lipasen mit unbekannten Substratspezifität und wie diese optimierten Bedingungen bei der Suche nach dem natürlichen Substrat eines jeweiligen (phospho) Lipase zu verwenden. Mit künstlichen chromogene Substrate, wie p - Nitrophenyl - Derivate, kann dazu beitragen , eine kleinere zu erkennenenzymatische Aktivität für eine vorhergesagte (phospho) Lipase unter Standardbedingungen. Eine solche geringfügige enzymatische Aktivität angetroffen wird, können die unterschiedlichen Parameter einer Enzymassay, um einen effizienteren Hydrolyse des künstlichen Substrat zu erhalten, variiert werden. Nachdem die Bedingungen arbeitet ein Enzym gut unter denen sie festgestellt haben, sollte eine Vielzahl von potentiellen natürlichen Substrate für deren Abbau getestet werden, ein Prozess, der verschiedene chromatographische Methoden gefolgt Einsatz werden können. Die Definition von Substratspezifitäten für neue Enzyme, liefert oft Hypothesen für eine mögliche physiologische Rolle dieser Enzyme, die dann experimentell überprüft werden kann. Nach diesen Richtlinien, konnten wir eine Phospholipase C (SMc00171) , die Phosphatidylcholin, für den Umbau von Membranen in dem Bakterium Sinorhizobium meliloti auf phosphor limitierenden Bedingungen des Wachstums in einem entscheidenden Schritt phosphocholin und Diacylglycerin verschlechtert zu identifizieren. Für zwei vorhergesagten patatin-wie Phospholipasen (SMc00930 und SMc01003) des gleichen Organismus, könnten wir ihre Substratspezifität neu zu definieren und zu klären, dass SMc01003 ein Diacylglycerol Lipase ist.

Aktivität von PC-spezifische Phospholipase C SMc00171 mit Bis- p - Nitrophenylphosphat Zellfreie Extrakte von E. erhalten coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS x, die smc00171 hatte ausgedrückt, wurden auf ihre Fähigkeit untersucht bis- p - Nitrophenylphosphat Ester zu hydrolysieren, eine spektrophotometrische enzymatischen Assay unter Verwendun...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Defining Substrate Specificities for Lipase and Phospholipase Candidates at JoVE.com

Defining Substrate Specificities for Lipase and Phospholipase Candidates

Many predicted (phospho)lipases are poorly characterized with regard to their substrate specificities and physiological functions. Here we provide a protocol to optimize enzyme activities, search for natural substrates, and propose physiological functions for these enzymes.

Definieren von Substratspezifität für Lipase und Phospholipase-Kandidaten

Microorganisms produce a wide spectrum of (phospho)lipases that are secreted in order to make external substrates available for the organism. ...

defining-substrate-specificities-for-lipase-phospholipase

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

14.9K Aufrufe.  Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Many predicted (phospho)lipases are poorly characterized with regard to their substrate specificities and physiological functions. Here we provide a protocol to optimize enzyme activities, search for natural substrates, and propose physiological functions for these enzymes.

Serie: Defining Substrate Specificities for Lipase and Phospholipase Candidates

High-throughput Screening of Carbohydrate-degrading Enzymes Using Novel Insoluble Chromogenic Substrate Assay Kits

Carbohydrates active enzymes (CAZymes) have multiple roles in vivo and are widely used for industrial processing in the biofuel, textile, detergent, paper and food industries. A deeper understanding of CAZymes is important from both fundamental biology and industrial standpoints. Vast numbers of CAZymes exist in nature (especially in microorganisms) and hundreds of thousands have been cataloged and described in the carbohydrate active enzyme database (CAZy). However, the rate of discovery of putative enzymes has outstripped our ability to biochemically characterize their activities. One reason for this is that advances in genome and transcriptome sequencing, together with associated bioinformatics tools allow for rapid identification of candidate CAZymes, but technology for determining an enzyme's biochemical characteristics has advanced more slowly. To address this technology gap, a novel high-throughput assay kit based on insoluble chromogenic substrates is described here. Two distinct substrate types were produced: Chromogenic Polymer Hydrogel (CPH) substrates (made from purified polysaccharides and proteins) and Insoluble Chromogenic Biomass (ICB) substrates (made from complex biomass materials). Both CPH and ICB substrates are provided in a 96-well high-throughput assay system. The CPH substrates can be made in four different colors, enabling them to be mixed together and thus increasing assay throughput. The protocol describes a 96-well plate assay and illustrates how this assay can be used for screening the activities of enzymes, enzyme cocktails, and broths.

A high-throughput assay for enzyme screening is described. This multiplexed ready-to-use assay kit comprises of pre-chosen Chromogenic Polymer Hydrogel (CPH) substrates and complex Insoluble Chromogenic Biomass (ICB) substrates. Target enzymes are polysaccharide degrading endo-enzymes and proteases.

Hochdurchsatz-Screening von Kohlenhydrat-abbauenden Enzymen Neuartige Unlöslich chromogenen Assays Kits

Carbohydrates active enzymes (CAZymes) have multiple roles in vivo and are widely used for industrial processing in the biofuel, textile, detergent, paper ...

Forschung

Biochemie

Biochemical and Structural Characterization of the Carbohydrate Transport Substrate-binding-protein SP0092

Development of new antimicrobials and vaccines for Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are necessary to halt the rapid rise in multiple resistant strains. Carbohydrate substrate binding proteins (SBPs) represent viable targets for the development of protein-based vaccines and new antimicrobials because of their extracellular localization and the centrality of carbohydrate import for pneumococcal metabolism, respectively. Described here is a rationalized integrated protocol to carry out a comprehensive characterization of SP0092, which can be extended to other carbohydrate SBPs from the pneumococcus and other bacteria. This procedure can aid the structure-based design of inhibitors for this class of proteins. Presented in the first part of this manuscript are protocols for biochemical analysis by thermal shift assay, multi angle light scattering (MALS), and size exclusion chromatography (SEC), which optimize the stability and homogeneity of the sample directed to crystallization trials and so enhance the probability of success. The second part of this procedure describes the characterization of the SBP crystals using a tunable wavelength anomalous diffraction synchrotron beamline, and data collection protocols for measuring data that can be used to resolve the crystallized protein structure.

A streamlined protocol for performing an extensive biochemical and structural characterization of a carbohydrate substrate binding protein from Streptococcus pneumoniae is presented.

Biochemische und strukturelle Charakterisierung von Kohlenhydrat Transport Substrat-Bindeprotein SP0092

Development of new antimicrobials and vaccines for Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) are necessary to halt the rapid rise in multiple resistant ...

Fractionation for Resolution of Soluble and Insoluble Huntingtin Species

The accumulation of misfolded proteins is central to pathology in Huntington's disease (HD) and many other neurodegenerative disorders. Specifically, a key pathological feature of HD is the aberrant accumulation of mutant HTT (mHTT) protein into high molecular weight complexes and intracellular inclusion bodies composed of fragments and other proteins. Conventional methods to measure and understand the contributions of various forms of mHTT-containing aggregates include fluorescence microscopy, western blot analysis, and filter trap assays. 
However, most of these methods are conformation specific, and therefore may not resolve the full state of mHTT protein flux due to the complex nature of aggregate solubility and resolution.
For the identification of aggregated mHTT and various modified forms and complexes, separation and solubilization of the cellular aggregates and fragments is mandatory. Here we describe a method to isolate and visualize soluble mHTT, monomers, oligomers, fragments, and an insoluble high molecular weight (HMW) accumulated mHTT species. HMW mHTT tracks with disease progression, corresponds with mouse behavior readouts, and has been beneficially modulated by certain therapeutic interventions1. This approach can be used with mouse brain, peripheral tissues, and cell culture but may be adapted to other model systems or disease contexts.

A method is described for fractionation of insoluble and soluble mutant huntingtin species from mouse brain and cell culture. The method described is useful for characterization and quantification of huntingtin protein flux and aids in analyzing protein homeostasis in disease pathogenesis and in the presence of perturbations

Fraktionierung für Auflösung von löslichen und unlöslichen Huntingtin-Arten

The accumulation of misfolded proteins is central to pathology in Huntington's disease (HD) and many other neurodegenerative disorders. Specifically, a ...

Purification and Reconstitution of TRPV1 for Spectroscopic Analysis

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine and remain largely unknown. With recent advances in single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) shedding light on the structural features of agonist binding sites and the activation mechanism of several ion channels, the stage is set for an in-depth dynamic analysis of their gating mechanisms using spectroscopic approaches. Spectroscopic techniques such as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and double electron-electron resonance (DEER) have been mainly restricted to the study of prokaryotic ion channels that can be purified in large quantities. The requirement for large amounts of functional and stable membrane proteins has hampered the study of mammalian ion channels using these approaches. EPR and DEER offer many advantages, including determination of the structure and dynamic changes of mobile protein regions, albeit at low resolution, that might be difficult to obtain by X-ray crystallography or cryo-EM, and monitoring reversible gating transition (i.e., closed, open, sensitized, and desensitized). Here, we provide protocols for obtaining milligrams of functional detergent-solubilized transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) that can be labeled for EPR and DEER spectroscopy.

This article describes specific methods to obtain biochemical quantities of detergent-solubilized TRPV1 for spectroscopic analysis. The combined protocols provide biochemical and biophysical tools that can be adapted to facilitate structural and functional studies for mammalian ion channels in a membrane-controlled environment.

Reinigung und Wiederherstellung der TRPV1 für spektroskopische Analyse

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine ...

Defining Hsp33's Redox-regulated Chaperone Activity and Mapping Conformational Changes on Hsp33 Using Hydrogen-deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry

Living organisms regularly need to cope with fluctuating environments during their life cycle, including changes in temperature, pH, the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, and more. These fluctuations can lead to a widespread protein unfolding, aggregation, and cell death. Therefore, cells have evolved a dynamic and stress-specific network of molecular chaperones, which maintain a "healthy" proteome during stress conditions. ATP-independent chaperones constitute one major class of molecular chaperones, which serve as first-line defense molecules, protecting against protein aggregation in a stress-dependent manner. One feature these chaperones have in common is their ability to utilize structural plasticity for their stress-specific activation, recognition, and release of the misfolded client. 
In this paper, we focus on the functional and structural analysis of one such intrinsically disordered chaperone, the bacterial redox-regulated Hsp33, which protects proteins against aggregation during oxidative stress. Here, we present a toolbox of diverse techniques for studying redox-regulated chaperone activity, as well as for mapping conformational changes of the chaperone, underlying its activity. Specifically, we describe a workflow which includes the preparation of fully reduced and fully oxidized proteins, followed by an analysis of the chaperone anti-aggregation activity in vitro using light-scattering, focusing on the degree of the anti-aggregation activity and its kinetics. To overcome frequent outliers accumulated during aggregation assays, we describe the usage of Kfits, a novel graphical tool which allows easy processing of kinetic measurements. This tool can be easily applied to other types of kinetic measurements for removing outliers and fitting kinetic parameters. To correlate the function with the protein structure, we describe the setup and workflow of a structural mass spectrometry technique, hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry, that allows the mapping of conformational changes on the chaperone and substrate during different stages of Hsp33 activity. The same methodology can be applied to other protein-protein and protein-ligand interactions.

One of the most challenging stress conditions that organisms encounter during their lifetime involves the accumulation of oxidants. During oxidative stress, cells heavily rely on molecular chaperones. Here, we present methods used to investigate the redox-regulated anti-aggregation activity, as well as to monitor structural changes governing the chaperone function using HDX-MS.

Hsp33 des Redox-regulierten Chaperon Aktivität definieren und Mapping Konformationsänderungen auf Hsp33 mit Wasserstoff-Deuterium Austausch Massenspektrometrie

Living organisms regularly need to cope with fluctuating environments during their life cycle, including changes in temperature, pH, the accumulation of ...

Sampling and Pretreatment of Tooth Enamel Carbonate for Stable Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Analysis

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of human and animal tooth enamel carbonate has been applied in paleodietary, paleoecological, and paleoenvironmental research from recent historical periods back to over 10 million years ago. Bulk approaches provide a representative sample for the period of enamel mineralization, while sequential samples within a tooth can track dietary and environmental changes during this period. While these methodologies have been widely applied and described in archaeology, ecology, and paleontology, there have been no explicit guidelines to aid in the selection of necessary lab equipment and to thoroughly describe detailed laboratory sampling and protocols. In this article, we document textually and visually, the entire process from sampling through pretreatment and diagenetic screening to make the methodology more widely available to researchers considering its application in a variety of laboratory settings.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of human and animal tooth enamel carbonate has been used as a proxy for individual diet and environmental reconstruction. Here, we provide a detailed description and visual documentation of bulk and sequential tooth enamel sampling as well as pretreatment of archaeological and paleontological samples.

Probenahme und Vorbehandlung des Zahnschmelzes Carbonat für stabile Kohlenstoff und Sauerstoff-Isotopen-Analyse

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of human and animal tooth enamel carbonate has been applied in paleodietary, paleoecological, and ...

Detection of Phospholipase C Activity in the Brain Homogenate from the Honeybee

The honeybee is a model organism for evaluating complex behaviors and higher brain function, such as learning, memory, and division of labor. The mushroom body (MB) is a higher brain center proposed to be the neural substrate of complex honeybee behaviors. Although previous studies identified genes and proteins that are differentially expressed in the MBs and other brain regions, the activities of the proteins in each region are not yet fully understood. To reveal the functions of these proteins in the brain, pharmacologic analysis is a feasible approach, but it is first necessary to confirm that pharmacologic manipulations indeed alter the protein activity in these brain regions.
We previously identified a higher expression of genes encoding phospholipase C (PLC) in the MBs than in other brain regions, and pharmacologically assessed the involvement of PLC in honeybee behavior. In that study, we biochemically tested two pharmacologic agents and confirmed that they decreased PLC activity in the MBs and other brain regions. Here, we present a detailed description of how to detect PLC activity in honeybee brain homogenate. In this assay system, homogenates derived from different brain regions are reacted with a synthetic fluorogenic substrate, and fluorescence resulting from PLC activity is quantified and compared between brain regions. We also describe our evaluation of the inhibitory effects of certain drugs on PLC activity using the same system. Although this system is likely affected by other endogenous fluorescence compounds and/or the absorbance of the assay components and tissues, the measurement of PLC activity using this system is safer and easier than that using the traditional assay, which requires radiolabeled substrates. The simple procedure and manipulations allow us to examine PLC activity in the brains and other tissues of honeybees involved in different social tasks.

To test the inhibitory effects of pharmacologic agents on phospholipase C (PLC) in different regions of the honeybee brain, we present a biochemical assay to measure PLC activity in those regions. This assay could be useful for comparing PLC activity among tissues, as well as among bees exhibiting different behaviors.

Erkennung von Phospholipase C Aktivität im Gehirn Homogenat von der Honigbiene

The honeybee is a model organism for evaluating complex behaviors and higher brain function, such as learning, memory, and division of labor. The mushroom ...

Measuring and Interpreting Oxygen Consumption Rates in Whole Fly Head Segments

Regulated metabolic activity is essential for the normal functioning of living cells. Indeed, altered metabolic activity is causally linked with the progression of cancer, diabetes, neurodegeneration, and aging to name a few. For instance, changes in mitochondrial activity, the cell&#39;s metabolic powerhouse, have been characterized in many such diseases. Generally, the oxygen consumption rates of mitochondria were considered a reliable readout of mitochondrial activity and measurements in some of these studies were based on isolated mitochondria or cells. However, such conditions may not represent the complexity of a whole tissue. Recently, we have developed a novel method that enables the dynamic measurement of oxygen consumption rates from whole isolated fly heads. By utilizing this method, we have recorded lower oxygen consumption rates of the whole head segment in young versus aged flies. Secondly, we have discovered that lysine deacetylase inhibitors rapidly alter the oxygen consumption in the whole head. Our novel technique may therefore aid in uncovering new properties of various drugs, which may impact metabolic rates. Furthermore, our method may give a better understanding of metabolic behavior in an experimental setup that more closely resembles physiological states.

Measuring alterations in metabolic rates is central to understanding the progression of various diseases and aging. Here, we present a novel technique to measure whole head oxygen consumption that more closely resembles the physiological state and may aid in revealing novel drugs that modify mitochondrial activity.

Messung und Interpretation von Sauerstoff-Verbrauch im ganzen fliegen Kopf Segmente

Regulated metabolic activity is essential for the normal functioning of living cells. Indeed, altered metabolic activity is causally linked with the ...

Fully Processed Recombinant KRAS4b: Isolating and Characterizing the Farnesylated and Methylated Protein

Protein prenylation is a key modification that is responsible for targeting proteins to intracellular membranes. KRAS4b, which is mutated in 22% of human cancers, is processed by farnesylation and carboxymethylation due to the presence of a &#39;CAAX&#39; box motif at the C-terminus. An engineered baculovirus system was used to express farnesylated and carboxymethylated KRAS4b in insect cells and has been described previously. Here, we describe the detailed, practical purification and biochemical characterization of the protein. Specifically, affinity and ion exchange chromatography were used to purify the protein to homogeneity. Intact and native mass spectrometry was used to validate the correct modification of KRAS4b and to verify nucleotide binding. Finally, membrane association of farnesylated and carboxymethylated KRAS4b to liposomes was measured using surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy.

Prenylation is an important modification on peripheral membrane binding proteins. Insect cells can be manipulated to produce farnesylated and carboxymethylated KRAS4b in quantities that enable biophysical measurements of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions

Vollverarbeitetes rekombinantes KRAS4b: Isoliert und charakterisieren das farnesylierte und methylierte Protein

Protein prenylation is a key modification that is responsible for targeting proteins to intracellular membranes. KRAS4b, which is mutated in 22% of human ...

Extraction and Purification of FAHD1 Protein from Swine Kidney and Mouse Liver

Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase domain-containing protein 1 (FAHD1) is the first identified member of the FAH superfamily in eukaryotes, acting as oxaloacetate decarboxylase in mitochondria. This article presents a series of methods for the extraction and purification of FAHD1 from swine kidney and mouse liver. Covered methods are ionic exchange chromatography with fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC), preparative and analytical gel filtration with FPLC, and proteomic approaches. After total protein extraction, ammonium sulfate precipitation and ionic exchange chromatography were explored, and FAHD1 was extracted via a sequential strategy using ionic exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. This representative approach may be adapted to other proteins of interest (expressed at significant levels) and modified for other tissues. Purified protein from tissue may support the development of high-quality antibodies, and/or potent and specific pharmacological inhibitors.

This protocol describes how to extract fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase domain-containing protein 1 (FAHD1) from swine kidney and mouse liver. The listed methods may be adapted to other proteins of interest and modified for other tissues.