该研究的财政支持由国家心理健康研究所校内研究计划ZIAMH002798（ClinicalTrial.gov标识:NCT00026559:Protocol ID 01-M-0185）提供。

所有参与者都获得了国家心理健康研究所（NIMH）联合神经科学机构审查委员会（IRB）批准的书面知情同意书，并得到参与。 1.设置设备注意:如下所述设置设备（参见图1A ） 3 。 <ol><li>在控制室，设置两台电脑，一台用于管理实验，一台用于记录生理数据。 </li><li>在主题室，在液晶显示器和键盘（或按钮盒）中设置标准19，以分别向参与者显示刺激并记录参与者的反应。 </li><li>要记录心理生理学，请使用以太网到USB适配器将记录计算机连接到心理生理学监测硬件。 </li><li>在晶体管 - 晶体管逻辑（TTL）信号之间分割记录和刺激传送硬件，使用带状电缆将实验计算机的并行端口连接到分线盒。 </li><li>要将TTL信号传递给心理生理监测硬件，请使用带状电缆将接线盒连接到硬件。 </li><li>要将TTL脉冲传递到激励传递硬件，请使用卡口式Neill-Concelman（BNC）电缆将分线盒连接到信号发生器。 </li><li>要产生冲击装置的控制信号，请使用BNC电缆将信号发生器连接到冲击装置。 </li><li>设置信号发生器和冲击装置，以产生100 ms，200 Hz的冲击。有关所有设置，请参见图1B和C。 </li></ol> 2.使用可用的软件编程实验注意:使用神经行为系统软件（这里称为实验软件;参见材料表 ）。其他等效可以使用软件。 <ol><li> 使用下面描述的参数和提供的补充代码文件来编制四个测试阶段（详见补充代码）。 <ol><li>对于每个阶段，26项试验。 </li><li>将试验划分为四个交替的威胁和安全块，每个块进行6次试验。 </li><li>在每次试验开始时，提供一个提示，指示每个2000毫秒会显示多少个字母。 </li><li>提示后，出现编码字母序列2,500±1,000 ms。 </li><li>在低负载试验中，依次出现5个字母，一个接一个。 </li><li>在高负载试验中，依次出现8个字母，一个接一个。 </li><li>在编码阶段编程9,000±1,000 ms后的维护期。 </li><li>在维护期结束时，提交2000 ms的响应提示。 </li><li>编制响应提示以在左侧显示一个字母和数字在显示器的右侧，字母表示来自编码序列的字母，数字表示序列中的位置。 </li><li>在字母和数字的下面，显示字符匹配/不匹配，指的是字母是否匹配或不符合位置编号。 </li><li>对实验进行编程，使一半的试验匹配和半失配。 </li><li>使用键盘或按钮框来记录响应。 </li><li>将试验与可变持续时间间隔间隔（ITI）分开，这取决于试验前事件的时间，使得每次试验的长度为23s。 </li><li>通过选择每个时段的最大值和最低值之间的随机持续时间（以毫秒为单位），来改变跨越试验的编码，维护和ITI周期的持续时间。 </li><li>平衡实验，使一半的参与者开始在一个安全的块，一半的参与者开始在威胁块。 </li><li>在每次运行中，在每个威胁块期间存在0到2个伪随机震荡，每次运行总共3次休克呈现。确保为每次冲击增加额外的（虚拟）试验，以确保在安全和威胁组件中包含相同数量的试验。 </li><li>在每次运行开始时，通过耳机呈现103 dB白噪声（近瞬间上升/下降时间）的五个40 ms脉冲串，以制造惊吓响应。 </li><li>在每次运行期间，在以下条件下，呈现3次白噪声演示，以探测惊吓响应（ 见图3 ）:安全与威胁，低负载与高负载以及维护周期对ITI的影响。 </li><li>使探针间隔最小间隔至少17秒，以避免短暂的惊恐反应。 </li><li>对于维护期试验，目前的探头不小于1秒后字母系列的偏移。 </li><li>对于ITI三在响应提示的偏移后，目前的探测不少于4秒。 </li><li>根据制造商的说明，使用相关的软件包设置用于生理监测的设备。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3.运行实验<ol><li>陪同参加者到学习室。 </li><li>管理知情同意书。 </li><li>给予参加者国家焦虑库存Y-1（STAI-Y1） 25 ，贝克焦虑量表（BAI） 26 ，贝克抑郁量表（BDI） 27和焦虑敏感指数（ASI） 28，以填写以前到任务说明和设置。 </li><li>通知参与者他们将看到2种类型的试验，并将根据以下细节回应这些试验。 </li><li>在低负载试验期间，指示参与者按照顺序在其记忆中维持一系列5个字母他们被提出。 </li><li>在高负载试验期间，指示参与者按其呈现顺序在其记忆中保持一系列8个字母。 </li><li>通知参与者，在延迟之后，将以一个字母和数字提示它们，以引用序列中的位置。 </li><li>指示参与者分别使用左箭头键或右箭头键指示字母和位置数字是否匹配或不匹配试用序列。 </li><li>通知与会者，在安全和威胁期间，如果手腕受到不可预测的轻微电击危险，将进行试验。 </li><li>通知参与者，在安全和威胁状况下，他们将在整个实验中听到声音惊险探测器。 </li><li> 根据图2中的图示清洁每个参与者的电极并附上电极。 <ol><li>放置t将一次性11毫米银 - 氯化银（Ag-AgCl）电极放在左手掌上，距离约2厘米，以监测皮肤电导。 </li><li>将两个一次性的11毫米Ag-AgCl电极放置在左手的内腕上，距离约3厘米，以便进行电刺激。 </li><li>将一个一次性的11毫米Ag-AgCl电极放置在左臂内侧，正好在肘部上方，一个一次性电极位于右锁骨正下方，以监测心率。 </li><li>将两个4毫米Ag-AgCl杯电极连接到左眼轮匝肌的下侧以测量惊恐反应。 </li></ol></li><li>用生物医学胶带固定所有电极。 </li><li>将引线连接到手掌上的电极，并将其插入心理生理学监测硬件的EDA通道。 </li><li>将导线连接到手腕上的电极，并将其插入震动装置。 </li><li>将引线连接到手臂和锁骨上的电极，然后将它们插入n到ECG通道的心理生理监测硬件。 </li><li>将附着于眼轮匝肌的杯状电极插入心理生理监测硬件的肌电图（EMG）通道。 </li><li> 冲击校准。 <ol><li>在实验开始之前，让参与者评估一系列100 ms的样本电刺激，以确定令人不愉快和不舒服的强度水平，但不是痛苦。 <ol><li>使用实验软件包（见补充代码文件和材料表 ），将100 ms冲击刺激的系列演示（〜5-10）管理到手腕。 </li><li>每次演示后，参与者按照1（不是不舒服）至10（不舒服但不痛苦）的比例口头评价每个演示文稿。 </li><li>在电击装置上使用mA电平，逐渐增加电击的强度并继续刺激的刺激直到受试者将刺激评价为"10"。 </li><li>记录参与者详细信息包的强度值。 注意:在研究期间，以确定的强度呈现冲击。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li>要开始实验，请按照实验软件的提示，在运行框中输入参与者ID号码，平衡条件和运行号码。 注意:创建两个平衡条件。第一个平衡将在威胁块开始实验，第二个平衡将在一个安全的块中开始实验。见第2节。 </li><li>点击心理生理监测记录上的"开始"。 </li><li>按实验软件提示框上的"输入"开始实验。 </li><li>允许受试者完成4次实验。如果信件和位置数字匹配或不匹配试验，请参与者选择左或右箭头键序列（步骤3.7和3.8）。 注意:编程每个游程长度持续6到7分钟。计划在0-2次/次运行之间伪随机运送的冲击。见第2节。 </li><li>每次运行之后，让受试者在刚刚完成的运行安全和威胁组件中口头评价焦虑水平，从0（不急）10（非常焦虑）。 </li><li>让受试者在初始校准程序中使用相同的0-10级别（第3.17节）口头评估上次运行期间提供的冲击强度。 </li></ol> 4.分析绩效注意:使用以下说明分析单个参与者的性能数据。 <ol><li> 打开从实验软件创建的输出文件。 <ol><li>为了平均不同条件下的正确答案，首先将数据分为安全与威胁和低负载我们高负载产生4个独特的响应数据条件。 </li><li>计算4个条件中的每一个的正确试验，并将该数除以每个条件的总试验次数。 </li><li>为了平均不同条件下的反应时间，将步骤4.1.1中的数据分开。 </li><li>求出每个条件的所有反应时间，并将该数除以每种条件下的试验次数。 注意:如实验软件输出所示，省略包括休克演示的试验。 </li></ol></li><li>在小组级别，对象进行2（安全对威胁）x 2（低负载与高负载）方差分析，以识别行为表现和反应时间的差异29 。 </li></ol> 5.分析惊魂<ol><li> 使用心理生理分析软件准备原始EMG数据进行分析30 。参见图4A 。<ol><li>选择"变换"&gt;&gt;数字滤波器&gt;&gt; FIR &gt;&gt;带通从心理生理分析软件应用数字带通滤波器（30-300 Hz通带），平滑原始EMG通道（ 见图4B ）。 </li></ol></li><li>选择分析&gt;&gt;肌电图&gt;&gt;从心理生理分析软件导出平均整流肌电图，使用20 ms的时间平均值修正平滑的EMG信号（ 见图4C ）。 </li><li>从心理生理分析软件中选择分析&gt;&gt; Stim-Response &gt;&gt;数字输入到Stim事件，以标记与每种试验类型的数字输入相对应的刺激事件。 注意:例如，试用类型包括安全与威胁，低负载与高负载以及维护周期与ITI周期。 </li><li> 提取每个刺激事件30周围的眨眼幅度。 <ol><li>选择分析&gt;&gt; Stim-Response &gt;&gt; Stim-Response Analysis，并从心理生理分析软件中指定频道的平均值（ 即与处理的EMG对应的频道号），以在-50至固定窗口中提取平均基线活动白噪声发生前0 ms。 </li><li>选择分析&gt;&gt; Stim-Response &gt;&gt; Stim-Response Analysis，并从心理生理分析软件中指定通道最大值（ 即，对应于经处理的EMG的通道号），以识别固定窗口中的眨眼开始和峰值为20白噪声开始后100 ms。 </li></ol></li><li>排除EMG通道30噪音过大的试验。 注意:声学惊吓响应必须可靠地与过度的背景EMG活动或其他污染源（ 例如，运动伪影或体积在听觉探测之前立即自发闪烁; 见图4D ）。 </li><li> 使用标准电子表格软件分析逐个眨眼响应。 <ol><li>将闪烁量值归一化为z分数（可选）。 </li><li>将z分数转换为t分数进行进一步分析（t = 10x + 50;可选）。 </li><li>平均每个试验类型的试验中的t分数和/或原始分数，并计算每个条件的APS（威胁与安全）（ 例如，低负载与高负载和维护周期与ITI周期）。 </li><li>在组级别，在对象之间执行2（安全对威胁）x 2（维护期与ITI）方差分析，以确定WM维护对APS的影响。 </li></ol></li></ol> 6.分析自我报告数据<ol><li>平均安全和威胁条件下的运行焦虑等级。 </li><li>在小组级别，执行一个threat与安全t检验，以确定威胁操纵的有效性。 </li></ol>

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D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=State-Trait+Anxiety+Inventory.">State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.</a> Anxiety. 19 (650), 2009 (1987).</li><li>Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., Steer, R. a. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+inventory+for+measuring+clinical+anxiety:+psychometric+properties.">An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: psychometric properties.</a> J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 56 (6), 893-897 (1988).</li><li>Beck, A., Brown, G., Steer, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BDI-II+Manual.">BDI-II Manual.</a> J. Health Psychol. 17 (6), (1996).</li><li>Peterson, R. A., Heilbronner, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+anxiety+sensitivity+index:.+Construct+validity+and+factor+analytic+structure.">The anxiety sensitivity index:. Construct validity and factor analytic structure.</a> J. Anxiety Disord. 1 (2), 117-121 (1987).</li><li>Sthle, L., Wold, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+variance+(ANOVA).">Analysis of variance (ANOVA).</a> Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 6 (4), 259-272 (1989).</li><li>Blumenthal, T. D., Cuthbert, B. N., Filion, D. L., Hackley, S., Lipp, O. V., Van Boxtel, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Committee+report:+Guidelines+for+human+startle+eyeblink+electromyographic+studies.">Committee report: Guidelines for human startle eyeblink electromyographic studies.</a> Psychophysiology. 42 (1), 1-15 (2005).</li><li>Torrisi, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Neural+Basis+of+Improved+Cognitive+Performance+by+Threat+of+Shock.">The Neural Basis of Improved Cognitive Performance by Threat of Shock.</a> Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 11 (11), 1677-1686 (2016).</li><li>Robinson, O. J., Krimsky, M., Grillon, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+induced+anxiety+on+response+inhibition.">The impact of induced anxiety on response inhibition.</a> Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7, 69 (2013).</li><li>Owen, A. M., McMillan, K. M., Laird, A. R., Bullmore, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=N-back+working+memory+paradigm:+A+meta-analysis+of+normative+functional+neuroimaging+studies.">N-back working memory paradigm: A meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies.</a> Hum. Brain Mapp. 25 (1), 46-59 (2005).</li><li>Bailey, J. E., Argyropoulos, S. V., Kendrick, A. H., Nutt, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+and+cardiovascular+effects+of+7.5%+CO2+in+human+volunteers.">Behavioral and cardiovascular effects of 7.5% CO2 in human volunteers.</a> Depress. Anxiety. 21 (1), 18-25 (2005).</li><li>Thibodeau, M. A., Welch, P. G., Katz, J., Asmundson, G. J. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pain-related+anxiety+influences+pain+perception+differently+in+men+and+women:+A+quantitative+sensory+test+across+thermal+pain+modalities.">Pain-related anxiety influences pain perception differently in men and women: A quantitative sensory test across thermal pain modalities.</a> Pain. 154 (3), 419-426 (2013).</li><li>Lamm, C., Pine, D. S., Fox, N. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+negative+affectively+charged+stimuli+and+response+style+on+cognitive-control-related+neural+activation:+An+ERP+study.">Impact of negative affectively charged stimuli and response style on cognitive-control-related neural activation: An ERP study.</a> Brain Cogn. 83 (2), 234-243 (2013).</li></ol>

作者报告没有利益冲突。

本文演示了如何在冲击威胁下管理Sternberg WM任务。使用该协议，可以显示WM维护足以减少焦虑，如通过声学惊吓反射3的增强所测量的。这些结果表明，认知和焦虑之间的关系是双向的3 - 5和焦虑模型（ 例如，注意控制理论）1必须解释焦虑除了焦虑对认知的影响认知的影响。虽然目前的协议说明了斯腾WM任务和冲击范式威胁的整合，它也可以作为更普遍的21学习认知和焦虑之间的关系的框架。 通过重新设计在替代期间发生的现有认知任务安全威胁和克时期，它是可以研究的焦虑特定的认知过程，像WM和持续关注2，31，32的效果。例如，在以往的工作中，N-back任务与休克范式的威胁集成，表明焦虑WM在低负载而不是高负荷4,5干扰。这些结果表明焦虑干扰了WM，但是当任务要求很高时，健康人也能够克服焦虑。持续关注响应任务（SART）也与冲击范式的威胁相结合;受试者不得不抑制其对罕见的靶刺激的反应。这表明冲击的威胁任务31，32时增加了NOGO试验的准确性。和...一起N回研究中，这些结果表明，焦虑可以削弱和促进表现，效果的方向取决于任务所涉及的具体认知过程。 同样，通过为已经适应冲击范式的威胁的现有认知任务添加精确定时的惊恐探测，可以研究特定认知任务对焦虑的影响。期间在N回WM任务最初观察到该WM负载和焦虑之间的关系，其中，增加待保持的项目数减少APS 4,5。然而，因为这个任务需要维护和操作，就很难确定哪些WM成分是必需的焦虑23，33所观察到的减少。通过使用更简单的Sternberg WM范例来跟踪这些研究，可以进行sh那么中央执行处理对于减少焦虑是不必要的3 。 这种技术可用于研究焦虑对认知的影响，以及认知对焦虑的影响。因此，重要的是在这种范式中操纵焦虑和认知负担，并采取可靠的措施。当将这种方法应用于新的认知范式时，重要的是确保认知范式在性能上具有可区分的难度级别。如果先导测试在实验条件下不显示性能差异，请检查天花板/底板效果，并相应地调整任务的难度。同样，重要的是设计冲击处理的威胁，以便在低认知负荷条件下可以观察到APS。如果导频测试在低认知负荷条件下没有显示出惊人的差异，请尝试检查信号在EMG通道中的噪声比。 确保本协议有效性有三个关键步骤。首先，重要的是确保该主题了解正在实施的认知任务。如有必要，设计任务的练习版本，以确保受试者了解说明。第二，重要的是确保所用的电刺激具有足够的强度以引起受试者的焦虑。如有必要，每次运行后重新校准电刺激的强度。第三，重要的是确保EMG信道的信噪比足以恢复声学惊吓响应。如果通道噪声或阻抗太高，请彻底清洁眼睛下面的皮肤并重新施加EMG电极。 虽然这种范式有很多优点，但还有待解决的局限性。例如，使用av电击可能引起一些IRB的关注，特别是在处理弱势群体时。应该指出的是，除了使用电击，还有其他诱导焦虑的方法。这些包括呼吸CO 2（7.5％）的水平升高长时间（8-20分钟）34，使用厌恶热刺激35的威胁，呈现负valenced图片36， 等等 。然而，应当指出的是，电刺激安全（使用正常），使用广泛，有效。虽然该协议建议一个标准化的方法来分析增强惊吓，原始分数在某些情况下9,10更加可靠。如果使用标准分数，建议您先检查原始分数。 该协议的优点在于它允许研究人员灵活运用在单个会话中处理受试者的状态焦虑并测试焦虑与特定认知过程之间的关系。该协议有三个潜在的未来应用。首先，了解认知和情感系统如何在神经过程水平上相互作用是非常重要的。未来的研究应该考察焦虑与维持性维生素相关的神经活动之间的关系，并在记录BOLD活动时使用这一范例。第二，将这些发现推广到其他认知过程，如持续关注和奖励处理是很重要的。使用此协议的未来研究应在威胁和安全时期操纵这些过程。第三，了解健康人群和患者群体中认知与焦虑之间的关系很重要。使用该协议的未来研究应包括来自这些特殊人群的个人。 总而言之工作提出了一个研究WM负荷与诱发焦虑之间关系的协议。使用这种范式的研究表明，WM维护足以减轻焦虑，但焦虑不会干扰WM负载本身。虽然这里提出的发现是特定于Sternberg WM范式，但是该方案可以适应于研究认知和焦虑之间的双向关系。

<html>根据注意控制理论（ACT），焦虑通过竞争获取有限的工作记忆（WM）资源来干扰认知处理1 。然而，ACT没有解决这种关系的逆向（ 即认知处理对焦虑的影响）。通过期间使用休克范式的威胁认知任务操纵焦虑，有可能评估焦虑对认知的效果以及认知焦虑2，3，4，5中的效果。该协议的目的是演示如何在冲击范式的威胁下管理Sternberg WM范式，以探测焦虑与WM维护之间的双向关系。 休克范式的威胁在实验室中广泛应用于操纵状态焦虑F"&gt; 6，7，8，9，10，11，并且可以在健康受试者2，3，4，5和患者12，13，14，15一样来实施（参见布拉德福德等人 16的例子）。该模式由交替的威胁和安全17块。主题是在威胁块期间接收不可预知的电刺激的风险，但不会在安全块。受试者的焦虑可以定期用声音惊吓反射18，19来探测。主题通常是威胁块期间流较大惊恐反应相比，安全块，和这焦虑增强惊吓（APS）可以在测试17中 ，18中可以用作在正在进行的焦虑变化的周指数。震惊范式威胁中的激烈惊慌被国家心理健康研究所（NIMH）认可为研究领域标准矩阵20中焦虑的生理指标。然而，也可以使用自我报告的Likert型量表来探索个人的焦虑。因为冲击的威胁是一种被动的范式，其他认知任务可以同时进行21 。通过将休克的威胁与Sternberg WM任务相结合，可以在WM维护期间探测焦虑3 。 在Sternberg WM范式中，主体需要对WM中的一系列字母进行编码并作出响应压脚提升一个短暂的时间间隔3，22。不像更复杂的WM任务（ 例如，在N back任务）4，5，23，斯腾任务不需要的信息的操作在WM 3，22。此外，受试者在不同间隔期间对物品进行编码，维护和响应。一起，这些功能使得可以将WM维护与其他更复杂的认知过程分离24 。通过在WM维护间隔期间探测APS，可以确定WM维护对焦虑的影响。同样，通过比较威胁和安全块之间的WM精度和反应时间（RT），可以确定焦虑对WM维护的影响。该协议将详细说明执行Sternberg WM范式所需的程序步骤有冲击的威胁，以及在任务期间评估APS，准确性和反应时间所需的分析步骤。

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Biopac System</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>System</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>MP150</td>
			<td>1, Psychophysiology monitoring hardware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TTL integration</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>STP100C</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDA</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>EDA100C</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECG</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>ECG100C</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMG</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>EMG100C</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Other Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Breakout box</td>
			<td>See Alternatives</td>
			<td>Custom</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Grass Signal Generator</td>
			<td>Grass Instruments</td>
			<td>SD9</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shock device</td>
			<td>Digitimer North America, LLC</td>
			<td>DS7A</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alternatives</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alternative to Breakout box</td>
			<td>Cortech Solutions</td>
			<td>SD-MS-TCPBNC</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alternative Grass Signal Generator</td>
			<td>Digitimer North America, LLC</td>
			<td>DG2A</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Audio Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headphones</td>
			<td>Sennheiser Electronic GMBH &#38; CO</td>
			<td>HD-280</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headphone Amplifier</td>
			<td>Applied Research and Technology</td>
			<td>AMP4</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sound Pressure Level Meter</td>
			<td>Hisgadget Inc</td>
			<td>MS10</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrodes and Leads from Biopac</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMG</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>EL254S</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMG stickers</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>ADD204</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel for EMG</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>GEL100</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECG</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>LEAD110</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shock</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>LEAD110</td>
			<td>2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECG</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>LEAD110S-W</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECG</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>LEAD110S-R</td>
			<td>1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable electrodes</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>EL508</td>
			<td>6</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Presentation</td>
			<td>Neurobehavioral Systems</td>
			<td>Version 18</td>
			<td>Referred to here as experimental software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acknowledge</td>
			<td>Biopac Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>Version 4.2</td>
			<td>Referred to here as psychophysiology analysis software</td>
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reducing state anxiety using working memory maintenance

该协议的目的是通过结合Sternberg工作记忆（WM）和冲击范式的威胁来解释如何检查工作记忆过程和焦虑之间的关系。在Sternberg WM范式中，科目需要在WM中保持一连串的字母短暂的间隔，并通过确定该系列中给定字母的位置是否与数字提示相符。在冲击范式的威胁中，受试者暴露于交替的块体，在那里他们有可能接收到不可预测的轻度电击演示的风险，或者不受冲击。焦虑被探测到整个安全和威胁块使用声学惊恐反射，这是强化的威胁（焦虑恐惧惊吓（APS））。在威胁恐惧的威胁下进行Sternberg WM模式，并在WM维护间隔或间隔间隔期间探测惊吓响应，可以将d了解WM维护对APS的影响。

该协议产生三种主要数据类型:精度，RT和APS。对于准确性和RT，该协议涉及两个实验操作，威胁和负载。对于准确性，典型的结果显示负载的主要影响，但没有威胁的主要影响，没有负载 - 威胁的相互作用（试验（F（1,18）= 84.34; p &lt;0.01; 见图5 ）。受试者通常更多对于RT，典型结果显示两种负载（F（1,18）= 19.49; p &lt;0.01）和威胁（F（1,18）= 8.03）的主要影响; p = 0.01），但没有逐个威胁的相互作用（参见图6 ）。受试者在低负荷试验期间通常显示出比在高负载试验期间更快的RT，而在威胁阻止期间比在安全块期间更快的RT。 该协议还涉及APS的两个实验操作:加载和启动<html> le定时。典型结果显示了按时间间的相互作用（F（1,18）= 16.63; p &lt;0.01;参见图7 ）。受试者通常在低负荷与高负荷试验期间显示出显着较大的APS，但只有当在维持间隔期间（MNT;维持期:t（18）= 3.92; p &lt;0.01; ITI:p&gt; 0.05时，惊醒探针被传送） d = 0.72）。应该指出的是，由于推论统计可以从研究到研究上有所不同，重要的是复制这些影响。本实验后，发现APS作为任务难度的一致性降低。这种发现是在口头N回任务（3-back&gt; 0-back d（25）= 2.2） 4中观察到的，Sternberg WM范例（见上文，d（18）= 0.72）;对于复制，参见实验1 Balderston et al。2016 3 ;高负载&gt;低负载，d（18）= 0.44）和复杂图像识别任务（检索&gt;编码，d（21）= 0.47）ef"&gt; 2但是，应该指出，最终的结果可能部分地由习惯性驱动。 虽然在每次试验中难以确定个人的主观情绪状态，但可以使用自我报告数据来确定焦虑操作的有效性和个体差异度量。因此，重要的是在使用标准化问卷调查的实验前评估受试者的情感状态，并在实验过程中探讨受试者的焦虑情况。典型的结果显示，威胁区间的焦虑程度明显高于安全区块; t（18）= 8.85; p &lt;0.001。 <img alt="图1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig1.jpg" /> 图1: 典型设备设置示意图。 （ A ）使用单独的计算<html>管理任务并记录主体的生理信号。通过实验计算机的并行端口将事件与心理生理监测硬件和冲击装置同步。通过以太网电缆将心理生理监测硬件的生理信号转发到采集计算机。使用由信号发生器控制并由任务计算机触发的冲击装置对受试者提供冲击。通过任务计算机的声卡向被摄体发送白噪声，并使用心理生理监测硬件记录踪迹。 （ B ）信号发生器所需的设置。 （ C ）冲击装置的必要设定。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。</a> gimg"src ="/ files / ftp_upload / 55727 / 55727fig2.jpg"/&gt; 图2:典型主题设置示意图。连接电极以将受到冲击的主体非主导手腕。连接电极以测量受试者非优势掌上的皮肤电导率。连接电极以测量右眼下方的肌电图，在眼轮匝肌上。连接电极以测量受试者左二头肌和右锁骨上的心电图。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。</a> <img alt="图3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig3.jpg" /> 图3:典型实验设计示意图。提供一系列信件，然后是短暂的维护期和答复提示。在响应舞会期间<html> pt，用一封信（从系列）和一个数字提供主题。指示主题指示该号码是否匹配前一系列中目标字母的位置。在每次试验期间，在维护期间或间隔间隔期间（ITI），现有的惊恐探针。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。</a> <img alt="图4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig4.jpg" /> 图4:跟随白噪声探头的示例EMG跟踪。 （ A ）原始EMG痕迹。 （ B ）在30〜500Hz下进行EMG跟踪带通滤波。 （ C ）使用20 ms常数进行过滤和整流的EMG迹线。 （ D ）由基线噪声污染的试验中的原始EMG踪迹。iles / ftp_upload / 55727 / 55727fig4large.jpg"target ="_ blank"&gt;请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。 <img alt="图5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig5.jpg" /> 图5:典型的反应时间（RT）结果。受试者在低负荷试验期间通常比在高负荷试验中要快。受试者的冲击威胁也通常更快。棒表示平均值±SEM。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。</a> <img alt="图6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig6.jpg" /> 图6:典型的焦虑强化惊魂（APS）结果。在维持期（MNT）期间检测到惊恐时，受试者通常显示出较大的惊恐与高负载试验相比，低负荷。然而，在ITI期间探测到惊吓时，此效果不成立。棒表示平均值±SEM。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。</a> <img alt="图7" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig7.jpg" /> 图7:典型精度（百分比（％）正确）结果。在低负载试验中，受试者通常比高负荷试验更准确;然而，性能不会随着休克的威胁而变化。棒表示平均值±SEM。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/55727fig7large.jpg" target="_blank">请点击此处查看此图的较大版本。</a> 补充代码文件: Wav file为白噪声演示（40ms_wn.wav。） <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/40ms_wn.wav">请点击这里下载此文件。</a>为实验软件设置硬件参数所需的代码（Sternberg_threat_v5.exp。） <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/sternberg_threat_v5_run.exp">请点击此处下载此文件。</a>运行实验所需的代码（Sternberg_threat_v5.sce。）。 <a href="http://ecsource.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/55727/sternberg_threat_v5.sce">请点击这里下载此文件。</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Reducing State Anxiety Using Working Memory Maintenance at JoVE.com

Reducing State Anxiety Using Working Memory Maintenance

该协议演示了在Sternberg工作记忆模式中如何测量焦虑增强的惊吓。

使用工作记忆维护降低状态焦虑

The purpose of this protocol is to explain how to examine the relationship between working memory processes and anxiety by combining the Sternberg Working ...

reducing-state-anxiety-using-working-memory-maintenance

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

7.4K 次观看.  National Institutes of Health (NIH). 该协议演示了在Sternberg工作记忆模式中如何测量焦虑增强的惊吓。 

视频: Reducing State Anxiety Using Working Memory Maintenance

The Successive Alleys Test of Anxiety in Mice and Rats

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones. Handley, Mithani and File et al. performed the first studies on the plus-maze design we use today, and in 1987 Lister published a design for use with mice. 
Time spent on, and entries into, the open arms are an index of anxiety; the lower these indices, the more anxious the mouse is. Alternatively, a mouse that spends most of its time in the closed arms is classed as anxious. 
One of the problems of the plus-maze is that, while time spent on, and entries into, the open arms is a fairly unambiguous measure of anxiety, time in the central area is more difficult to interpret, although time spent here has been classified as &#x201C;decision making&#x201D;. In many tests central area time is a considerable part of the total test time.
Shepherd et al. produced an ingenious design to eliminate the central area, which they called the &#x201C;zero maze&#x201D;. However, although used by several groups, it has never been as widely adopted as the plus-maze. 
In the present article I describe a modification of the plus-maze design that not only eliminates the central area but also incorporates elements from other anxiety tests, such as the light-dark box and emergence tests. It is a linear series of four alleys, each having increasing anxiogenic properties. It has given similar results to the plus-maze in general. Although it may not be more sensitive than the plus-maze (more data is needed before a firm conclusion can be reached on this point), it provides a useful confirmation of plus-maze results which would be useful when, for example, only a single example of a mutant mouse was available, as, for example, in ENU-based mutagenesis programs.

The plus-maze measures anxiety-like behaviour in rodents. There are two opposite closed and two opposite open arms; anxious rodents avoid the open arms. The central area is neither completely open nor closed, so time spent here is ambiguous and difficult to interpret. Here a modification of the plus-maze protocol eliminating this area is described.

在小鼠和大鼠连续的小巷测试焦虑

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones.  ...

科研

行为学

Use of an Eight-arm Radial Water Maze to Assess Working and Reference Memory Following Neonatal Brain Injury

Working and reference memory are commonly assessed using the land based radial arm maze.&#160;However, this paradigm requires pretraining, food deprivation, and may introduce scent cue confounds. The eight-arm radial water maze is designed to evaluate reference and working memory performance simultaneously by requiring subjects to use extra-maze cues to locate escape platforms and remedies the limitations observed in land based radial arm maze designs. Specifically, subjects are required to avoid the arms previously used for escape during each testing day (working memory) as well as avoid the fixed arms, which never contain escape platforms (reference memory). Re-entries into arms that have already been used for escape during a testing session (and thus the escape platform has been removed) and re-entries into reference memory arms are indicative of working memory deficits. Alternatively, first entries into reference memory arms are indicative of reference memory deficits. We used this maze to compare performance of rats with neonatal brain injury and sham controls following induction of hypoxia-ischemia and show significant deficits in both working and reference memory after eleven days of testing. This protocol could be easily modified to examine many other models of learning impairment.

The eight-arm radial water maze is designed to evaluate reference and working memory performance simultaneously by requiring subjects to use extra-maze cues to locate escape platforms and remedies the limitations observed in land based radial arm maze designs.

Working and reference memory are commonly assessed using the land based radial arm maze.&#160;However, this paradigm requires pretraining, food ...

Using the Threat Probability Task to Assess Anxiety and Fear During Uncertain and Certain Threat

Fear of certain threat and anxiety about uncertain threat are distinct emotions with unique behavioral, cognitive-attentional, and neuroanatomical components. Both anxiety and fear can be studied in the laboratory by measuring the potentiation of the startle reflex. The startle reflex is a defensive reflex that is potentiated when an organism is threatened and the need for defense is high. The startle reflex is assessed via electromyography (EMG) in the orbicularis oculi muscle elicited by brief, intense, bursts of acoustic white noise (i.e., &#8220;startle probes&#8221;). Startle potentiation is calculated as the increase in startle response magnitude during presentation of sets of visual threat cues that signal delivery of mild electric shock relative to sets of matched cues that signal the absence of shock (no-threat cues). In the Threat Probability Task, fear is measured via startle potentiation to high probability (100% cue-contingent shock; certain) threat cues whereas anxiety is measured via startle potentiation to low probability (20% cue-contingent shock; uncertain) threat cues. Measurement of startle potentiation during the Threat Probability Task provides an objective and easily implemented alternative to assessment of negative affect via self-report or other methods (e.g., neuroimaging) that may be inappropriate or impractical for some researchers. Startle potentiation has been studied rigorously in both animals (e.g., rodents, non-human primates) and humans which facilitates animal-to-human translational research. Startle potentiation during certain and uncertain threat provides an objective measure of negative affective and distinct emotional states (fear, anxiety) to use in research on psychopathology, substance use/abuse and broadly in affective science. As such, it has been used extensively by clinical scientists interested in psychopathology etiology and by affective scientists interested in individual differences in emotion.

Potentiation of the startle reflex is measured via electromyography of the orbicularis oculi muscle during low (uncertain) and high (certain) probability electric shock threat in the Threat Probability Task. This provides an objective measure of distinct negative emotional states (fear/anxiety) for research on psychopathology, substance use/abuse, and broad affective science.

使用威胁概率任务，以评估焦虑和恐惧在不确定性和一定的威胁

Fear of certain threat and anxiety about uncertain threat are distinct emotions with unique behavioral, cognitive-attentional, and neuroanatomical ...

A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that one attempts to ignore, or by interrupting information that demands attention as part of another (secondary) task goal. Both forms of external interference have been shown to detrimentally impact the ability to maintain information in working memory (WM). Emerging evidence suggests that these different types of external interference exert different effects on behavior and may be mediated by distinct neural mechanisms. Better characterizing the distinct neuro-behavioral impact of irrelevant distractions versus attended interruptions is essential for advancing an understanding of top-down attention, resolution of external interference, and how these abilities become degraded in healthy aging and in neuropsychiatric conditions. This manuscript describes a novel cognitive paradigm developed the Gazzaley lab that has now been modified into several distinct versions used to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference, by to-be-ignored distractors versus to-be-attended interruptors. Details are provided on variants of this paradigm for investigating interference in visual and auditory modalities, at multiple levels of stimulus complexity, and with experimental timing optimized for electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. In addition, data from younger and older adult participants obtained using this paradigm is reviewed and discussed in the context of its relationship with the broader literatures on external interference and age-related neuro-behavioral changes in resolving interference in working memory.

A novel cognitive paradigm is developed to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference by to-be-ignored distractors versus interference by to-be-attended interruptors during a working memory task. In this manuscript, several variants of this paradigm are detailed, and data obtained with this paradigm in younger/older adult participants is reviewed.

认知范式调查干扰工作记忆的干扰和中断

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that ...

Morris Water Maze Test: Optimization for Mouse Strain and Testing Environment

The Morris water maze (MWM) is a commonly used task to assess hippocampal-dependent spatial learning and memory in transgenic mouse models of disease, including neurocognitive disorders such as Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. However, the background strain of the mouse model used can have a substantial effect on the observed behavioral phenotype, with some strains exhibiting superior learning ability relative to others. To ensure differences between transgene negative and transgene positive mice can be detected, identification of a training procedure sensitive to the background strain is essential. Failure to tailor the MWM protocol to the background strain of the mouse model may lead to under- or over- training, thereby masking group differences in probe trials. Here, a MWM protocol tailored for use with the F1 FVB/N x 129S6 background is described. This is a frequently used background strain to study the age-dependent effects of mutant P301L tau (rTg(TauP301L)4510 mice) on the memory deficits associated with Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. Also described is a strategy to re-optimize, as dictated by the particular testing environment utilized.

This manuscript describes a Morris water maze (MWM) protocol tailored for use with a commonly used mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. The MWM is widely used in transgenic mouse models. Implementation of a procedure sensitive to the background strain of the mouse model is essential for detecting group differences.

Morris水迷宫实验:优化小鼠品系和测试环境

 The Morris water maze (MWM) is a commonly used task to assess hippocampal-dependent spatial learning and memory in transgenic mouse models of disease, ...

Errors as a Means of Reducing Impulsive Food Choice

Nowadays, the increasing incidence of eating disorders due to poor self-control has given rise to increased obesity and other chronic weight problems, and ultimately, to reduced life expectancy. The capacity to refrain from automatic responses is usually high in situations in which making errors is highly likely. The protocol described here aims at reducing imprudent preference in women during hypothetical intertemporal choices about appetitive food by associating it with errors. First, participants undergo an error task where two different edible stimuli are associated with two different error likelihoods (high and low). Second, they make intertemporal choices about the two edible stimuli, separately. As a result, this method decreases the discount rate for future amounts of the edible reward that cued higher error likelihood, selectively. This effect is under the influence of the self-reported hunger level. The present protocol demonstrates that errors, well known as motivationally salient events, can induce the recruitment of cognitive control, thus being ultimately useful in reducing impatient choices for edible commodities.

Giving in to temptation of tasty food may result in long-term overweight problems. This protocol describes how to reduce imprudent preference for edible commodities during hypothetical intertemporal choices in women by associating them with errors.

作为错误脉冲减少食物选择的一种手段

Nowadays, the increasing incidence of eating disorders due to poor self-control has given rise to increased obesity and other chronic weight problems, and ...

Examining Recall Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood Using the Elicited Imitation Paradigm

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is commonly assessed using verbal report paradigms in adults, studying the development of this ability in preverbal infants and children proved challenging. Over the past 30 years, researchers have developed a non-verbal means of assessing recall memory known as the elicited or deferred imitation paradigm. In one variant of the procedure, participants are presented with novel three-dimensional stimuli for a brief baseline period before a researcher demonstrates a series of actions that culminate in an end- or goal-state. The participant is allowed to imitate the demonstrated actions immediately, after a delay, or both. Recall performance is then compared to baseline or to performance on novel control sequences presented at the same session; memory can be assessed for the individual target actions and the order in which they were completed. This procedure is an accepted analogue to the verbal report techniques used with adults, and it has served to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. In addition, the elicited or deferred imitation procedure has been modified and adapted to answer questions relevant to other aspects of cognitive functioning. The broad utility and application of imitation paradigms is discussed, along with limitations of the approach and directions for future research.

The elicited imitation procedure was established to examine the development of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. This procedure has been widely used to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood.

使用仿引起范式检查召回内存在婴幼儿时期

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

评估儿童工作记忆:儿童综合评估电池 - 工作记忆（CABC-WM）

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic memories are about events in their spatiotemporal context and are typically visuospatial, rather than verbal. Yet often, tests of episodic memory use verbal material to be recalled (word lists, stories). The Real-World What-Where-When memory test requires participants to hide a total of 16 different objects in 16 different locations over two temporal occasions, 2 h apart. Another two hours later, they are then asked to recall which objects (What) they had hidden in which locations (Where) and on which of the two occasions (When). In addition to counting the number of correctly recalled complete what-where-when combinations, this task can also be used to test real-world spatial memory and object memory. This task is sensitive to normal cognitive aging, and correlates well with performance on other episodic memory tasks, while at the same time providing more ecological validity and being cheap and easy to run.

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

The Real-World What-Where-When memory test is a novel episodic memory test, in which participants need to recall which objects have been hidden in which locations on which of two distinct occasions. It is easy to run and is sensitive to normal cognitive aging.

一个现实世界<em&gt;什么，在哪里，当</em&gt;记忆测试

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic ...

Utilizing the Modified T-Maze to Assess Functional Memory Outcomes After Cardiac Arrest

Background: Evaluating mild to moderate cognitive impairment in a global cerebral ischemia (i.e. cardiac arrest) model can be difficult due to poor locomotion after surgery. For example, rats who undergo surgical procedures and are subjected to the Morris water maze may not be able to swim, thus voiding the experiment.
New Method: We established a modified behavioral spontaneous alternation T-maze test. The major advantage of the modified T-maze protocol is its relatively simple design that is powerful enough to assess functional learning/memory after ischemia. Additionally, the data analysis is simple and straightforward. We used the T-maze to determine the rats&#39; learning/memory deficits both in the presence or absence of mild to moderate (6 min) asphyxial cardiac arrest (ACA). Rats have a natural tendency for exploration and will explore the alternate arms in the T-maze, whereas hippocampal-lesioned rats tend to adopt a side-preference resulting in decreased spontaneous alternation ratios, revealing the hippocampal-related functional learning/memory in the presence or absence of ACA.
Results: ACA groups have higher side-preference ratios and lower alternations as compared to control.
Comparison with Existing Method(s): The Morris water and Barnes maze are more prominent for assessing learning/memory function. However, the Morris water maze is more stressful than other mazes. The Barnes maze is widely used to measure reference (long-term) memory, while ACA-induced neurocognitive deficits are more closely related to working (short-term) memory.
Conclusions: We have developed a simple, yet effective strategy to delineate working (short-term) memory via the T-maze in our global cerebral ischemia model (ACA).

This protocol describes the use of a modified T-maze to evaluate functional learning/memory in asphyxia cardiac arrest-induced cerebral ischemia.

应用改良 T 迷宫评估心脏骤停后的功能记忆结果

Background: Evaluating mild to moderate cognitive impairment in a global cerebral ischemia (i.e. cardiac arrest) model can be difficult due to poor ...