Name: ice generation and the heat and mass transfer phenomena of introducing water to a cold bath of brine
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عملية توليد الجليد باستخدام محلول ملحي كمبرد الثانوية ينطوي على مزيج من الحرارة ونقل الجماعي. إذا كان نقل الحرارة أكبر، ثم أشكال الجليد قبل أن الماء لديه فرصة لخلط مع السوائل السائبة. ولوحظ أنه عندما يكون هناك حركة نسبية بين الماء قدم ومحلول ملحي بالجملة هادئة (أي</...

<html> وتستخدم عجائن الجليد على نطاق واسع في الصناعة، واحد التطبيق الناجح بشكل خاص هو-ولادة الخنازير تكنولوجيا الثلج 1 و 2. بالمقارنة مع رغوة التقليدية وخنزير الصلبة، يمكن للخنزير الجليد السفر من خلال طبولوجيا معقدة على مسافة طويلة بسبب تأثير تزييت الطور السائل وارتفاع درجة التجمد لها وبعض من الجليد بلورات تذوب 3، 4، 5 . حتى لو كان يحصل عالقا الخنزير، يمكن للمرء ببساطة الانتظار للعجائن الجليد في الذوبان واستئناف عملية التنظيف في وقت لاحق. هذه الطريقة في التنظيف الأنابيب هي رخيصة وسهلة الاستخدام. جزء الجليد يلعب دورا رئيسيا في أداء الخنزير الجليد. لقياس نسبة الجليد، يمكن للمرء استخدام كافيتيري (الصحافة الفرنسية) لتحديد ما إذا كان الطين الجليد سميكا بما يكفي 6،&quot;&gt; 7. هناك جزء الجليد عالية كافيتيري، عادة 80٪، مطلوب عند إجراء ولادة الخنازير الجليد. وأظهرت البحوث التي أجريت مؤخرا على الإنترنت كشف جزء الجليد أن كلا من الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية والموجات فوق الصوتية هي مناسبة لهذا المنصب 8، 9، 10، 11. عادة ما تكون مصنوعة الخنزير الجليد صانع الجليد كشط سطح من حل كلوريد الصوديوم 5٪ بالوزن (الماء المالح). بل هو أيضا وسيلة أساسية لجعل عجائن الجليد في الصناعة. هذا النوع من صنع الثلج يتجمد الماء أو محلول ملحي على سطح معدني بارد، عادة ما يكون سطح أملس 316 الفولاذ المقاوم للثم ماكينة القص دوريا جزيئات الجليد قبالة. واجهات السائل إلى المعدن معقدة جدا وتتأثر مجموعة واسعة من العوامل التي لا بد منها لصنع الثلج 12. واجهة بين غير المعدنية والماء يمكن أن تكون مختلفة جدا، ومثال واحد خاصة للاهتمام هو الكولنيت. وKaolواجهة المياه inite هو خاص بسبب عدم وجود بنية الجليد مواتية المجاور لسطح صلب، ولكن بدلا طبقة من السائل الركيزة مذبذب أن تشجع مجموعات المستعبدين الهيدروجين مثل الجليد لتشكيل فوقه 13 و 14. وهناك طريقة أخرى لإنتاج الخنزير الجليد يتطلب تكسير كتل الجليد ولم يضف بينما يتم إضافة عالية التركيز محلول ملحي في وقت واحد. لهذا الأسلوب، يمكن للنظام التبريد تشغيل عند درجة حرارة التبخر أعلى من ذلك بكثير بسبب عدم إضافة أية اكتئاب نقطة التجمد (حماية الأسرة) قبل تشكيل الجليد. وبالتالي يعتبر أكثر كفاءة نظرا لنسبة ضغط خفضت والسلطة تراجعت عن واجب إعطاء تبريد 15، 16، 17. هناك طريقتان إنتاج الآيس الأخرى: إنتاج الثلج من المياه فائق التبريد ووضع التبريد والمياه في اتصال مباشر <supالطبقة = &quot;XREF&quot;&gt; 18 و 19. الأسلوب ينطوي على البرودة الفائقة تعكير المياه فائق التبريد متبدل الاستقرار لتوليد التنوي الجليد والنمو. المشكلة الأكبر لهذا الأسلوب هو تشكيل الجليد غير المرغوب فيها التي يمكن منع النظام. يعتبر وسيلة اتصال مباشر وليس مناسبة للولادة الخنازير الجليد لأنه لا التبريد ولا زيت التشحيم مطلوبون في المنتج الجليد النهائي. تشكيل الجليد يتطلب الحرارة ونقل الجماعي بسبب الحرارة الكامنة للانصهار ولدت في هذه العملية. اكتشفت لأول مرة من قبل أوسبورن رينولدز في عام 1874 أن نقل الحرارة والكتلة في الغازات تقترن بقوة ويمكن التعبير عنها في صيغ رياضية مماثلة 20. شكل هذا العمل ورقة رائدة في موضوع الزخم والحرارة ونقل الجماعي في السوائل وطبع عدة مرات 21 و 22. هذا الموضوع ثم درست من قبلعدد من الآخرين، من كلا النهجين التحليلية والتجريبية، للغازات والسوائل، والمعدن المنصهر 23، 24، 25، 26، 27، 28، 29، 30، 31، 32، 33. وبصرف النظر عن انتقال الحرارة والكتلة، يحتاج السائل مواقع التنوي حيث يمكن للنمو الجليد شجيري تتطور. ونظرة حديثة إلى نمو بلورات الثلج يستخدم القانون Constructal، التي وضعتها أدريان بيجان، ليشرح لماذا ينمو الجليد في هذا الطريق 34، 35، 36. تشكيل الجليد في الماء المالح مختلفة جدا عن تلك في الماء النقي بسبب وجود الملح. أولا،<html> الملح يغير الديناميكا الحرارية من السوائل ويقلل درجة التجمد لها. ثانيا، الملح لا يمكن أن تذوب في مصفوفة الجليد (باستثناء هيدروهاليت، التي يمكن أن تشكل فقط عندما تصل درجة الحرارة إلى نقطة سهل الانصهار)، ورفض أن السائل بكميات كبيرة عندما يبدأ الجليد في النمو. تم اكتشاف الرفض من الملح في كل من الجليد البحري والجليد درس في المختبر 37 و 38. منذ رفض محلول ملحي عالي التركيز هو على درجة حرارة أقل بكثير من درجة التجمد لمياه البحر، حيث ينزل، وينمو الجليد في التفاعل بين المياه المالحة المتدفقة والسوائل بكميات كبيرة هادئة. وقد اكتشفت هذه الهوابط الجليد، واسمه أيضا brinicles، لأول مرة في ماكموردو الصوت، والقطب الجنوبي وكان درس التجربة 39، 40، 41، 42. في عام 2011، بي بي سي بتصوير تشكيل brinicles في سلسلة المجمدة كوكب لها&quot;XREF&quot;&gt; 43 و 44. في المختبر، واكتشف أن طريق عكس السوائل المتدفقة وهادئة عند تقديم الماء للحمام من محلول ملحي بارد، والماء قد تتحول إلى جليد وفقا للشروط الصحيحة 45. وقد تبين أن الموقع حيث يتم إدخال الماء، وتدفق الريولوجيا، ودرجة حرارة المياه المالحة والتركيز كلها عوامل رئيسية تؤثر في الكيفية التي يمكن أن تنتج الكثير من الجليد. ويتمثل الهدف العام من هذه الدراسة هو التحقيق في ما إذا كان يمكن تطوير صانع الجليد من خلال هذه الآلية لتوليد عجائن الجليد، بالنظر إلى أن درجة حرارة المبخر مرتفعة وارتفاع معدل نقل الحرارة السائل إلى سائل يمكن أن تعزز كفاءة استخدام الطاقة. هذه المادة سهم الجوانب الرئيسية من التجربة.

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ice generation and the heat and mass transfer phenomena of introducing water to a cold bath of brine

ونحن لشرح طريقة لدراسة الحرارة والكتلة نقل والظواهر تجميد في بيئة المياه المالحة subcooled. وأظهرت تجربتنا أنه في ظل الظروف المناسبة، والجليد يمكن أن تنتج عندما يتم إدخال الماء إلى حمام من محلول ملحي بارد. لجعل شكل جليد، بالإضافة إلى وجود مزيج الماء المالح والماء، فإن معدل نقل الحرارة يجب تجاوز ذلك من نقل الجماعي. عندما يتم إدخال الماء في شكل قطرات صغيرة على سطح الماء المالح، وطريقة نقل الحرارة والشامل عن طريق الانتشار. توقف الطفو المياه من الاختلاط مع الماء المالح تحت، ولكن كما الجليد ينمو أكثر سمكا، ويبطئ معدل انتقال الحرارة، مما يجعل الجليد من الصعب أن ينمو نتيجة لذلك. عندما يتم إدخال الماء داخل محلول ملحي في شكل تدفق، تم العثور على عدد من العوامل التي تؤثر على مقدار الجليد يمكن أن تشكل. درجة حرارة الماء المالح وتركيز، والتي هي القوة الدافعة والحرارة ونقل الجماعي، على التوالي، يمكن أن تؤثر على تحويل راتي الماء إلى جليدس؛ انخفاض درجات الحرارة حمام وتركيز المحلول الملحي تشجع المزيد من الجليد لتشكيل. والريولوجيا التدفق، والتي يمكن أن تؤثر بشكل مباشر على كل من الحرارة ومعاملات نقل الجماعي، هو أيضا عامل رئيسي. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، الريولوجيا تدفق يتغير مجال الاتصال من تدفق مع السوائل السائبة.

الشكل 1 يقارن آثار المياه أدخلت على سطح الماء المالح إلى الماء المحقون من خلال محلول ملحي. في السيناريو &quot;الايس كاب&quot;، والجليد المتكون هو صلب لأن الماء لا يختلط كثيرا مع السوائل السائبة. الفرق في درجة الحرارة والكثافة بين السوائل اثنين ي?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine at JoVE.com

Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

هنا، نقدم بروتوكول للتدليل على جيل من الجليد عند تقديم الماء لحمام بارد من محلول ملحي، وكمبرد الثانوية، في مجموعة من درجات الحرارة أقل بكثير من نقطة تجمد الماء. ويمكن استخدامه كطريقة بديلة لإنتاج الجليد للصناعة.

الجيل الجليد وانتقال الحرارة والكتلة الظواهر من إدخال المياه إلى حمام الباردة من الماء المالح

We demonstrate a method for the study of the heat and mass transfer and of the freezing phenomena in a subcooled brine environment. Our experiment showed ...

ice-generation-heat-mass-transfer-phenomena-introducing-water-to-cold

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

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Physics

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Unit 1

Temperature and Heat

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13.8K Views.  University of Bristol.  هنا، نقدم بروتوكول للتدليل على جيل من الجليد عند تقديم الماء لحمام بارد من محلول ملحي، وكمبرد الثانوية، في مجموعة من درجات الحرارة أقل بكثير من نقطة تجمد الماء. ويمكن استخدامه كطريقة بديلة لإنتاج الجليد للصناعة. 

Video: Ice Generation and the Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena of Introducing Water to a Cold Bath of Brine

Reservoir Condition Pore-scale Imaging of Multiple Fluid Phases Using X-ray Microtomography

X-ray microtomography was used to image, at a resolution of 6.6 &#181;m, the pore-scale arrangement of residual carbon dioxide ganglia in the pore-space of a carbonate rock at pressures and temperatures representative of typical formations used for CO2 storage. Chemical equilibrium between the CO2, brine and rock phases was maintained using a high pressure high temperature reactor, replicating conditions far away from the injection site. Fluid flow was controlled using high pressure high temperature syringe pumps. To maintain representative in-situ conditions within the micro-CT scanner a carbon fiber high pressure micro-CT coreholder was used. Diffusive CO2 exchange across the confining sleeve from the pore-space of the rock to the confining fluid was prevented by surrounding the core with a triple wrap of aluminum foil. Reconstructed brine contrast was modeled using a polychromatic x-ray source, and brine composition was chosen to maximize the three phase contrast between the two fluids and the rock. Flexible flow lines were used to reduce forces on the sample during image acquisition, potentially causing unwanted sample motion, a major shortcoming in previous techniques. An internal thermocouple, placed directly adjacent to the rock core, coupled with an external flexible heating wrap and a PID controller was used to maintain a constant temperature within the flow cell. Substantial amounts of CO2 were trapped, with a residual saturation of 0.203 &#177; 0.013, and the sizes of larger volume ganglia obey power law distributions, consistent with percolation theory.

We present a methodology for the imaging of multiple fluid phases at reservoir conditions by the use of x-ray microtomography. We show some representative results of capillary trapping in a carbonate rock sample.

التصوير خزان الحالة المسام النطاق من مراحل متعددة باستخدام السوائل مجهري الأشعة السينية

X-ray microtomography was used to image, at a resolution of 6.6 &#181;m, the pore-scale arrangement of residual carbon dioxide ganglia in the pore-space ...

Evolution of Staircase Structures in Diffusive Convection

Diffusive convection (DC) occurs when the vertical stratified density is controlled by two opposing scalar gradients that have distinctly different molecular diffusivities, and the larger- and smaller- diffusivity scalar gradients have negative and positive contributions for the density distribution, respectively. The DC occurs in many natural processes and engineering applications, for example, oceanography, astrophysics and metallurgy. In oceans, one of the most remarkable features of DC is that the vertical temperature and salinity profiles are staircase-like structure, composed of consecutive steps with thick homogeneous convecting layers and relatively thin and high-gradient interfaces. The DC staircases have been observed in many oceans, especially in the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, and play an important role on the ocean circulation and climatic change. In the Arctic Ocean, there exist basin-wide and persistent DC staircases in the upper and deep oceans. The DC process has an important effect on diapycnal mixing in the upper ocean and may significantly influence the surface ice-melting. Compared to the limitations of field observations, laboratory experiment shows its unique advantage to effectively examine the dynamic and thermodynamic processes in DC, because the boundary conditions and the controlled parameters can be strictly adjusted. Here, a detailed protocol is described to simulate the evolution process of DC staircase structure, including its generation, development and disappearance, in a rectangular tank filled with stratified saline water. The experimental setup, evolution process, data analysis, and discussion of results are described in detail.

Diffusive convection (DC) widely occurs in natural processes and engineering applications, characterized by a series of staircases with homogeneous convecting layers and stratified interfaces. An experimental procedure is described to simulate the evolution process of the DC staircase structure, including the generation, development and disappearance, in a rectangular tank.

تطور الهياكل الدرج في الحمل الحراري انتشارية

Diffusive convection (DC) occurs when the vertical stratified density is controlled by two opposing scalar gradients that have distinctly different ...

Environment

Pool-Boiling Heat-Transfer Enhancement on Cylindrical Surfaces with Hybrid Wettable Patterns

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern. Hybrid wettable patterns were produced by coating superhydrophilic SiO2 on a masked, hydrophobic, cylindrical copper surface. Using de-ionized (DI) water as the working fluid, pool-boiling heat-transfer studies were conducted on the different surface-treated copper cylinders of a 25-mm diameter and a 40-mm length. The experimental results showed that the number of interlines and the orientation of the hybrid wettable pattern influenced the wall superheat and the HTC. By increasing the number of interlines, the HTC was enhanced when compared to the plain surface. Images obtained from the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera indicated that more bubbles formed on the interlines as compared to other parts. The hybrid wettable pattern with the lowermost section being hydrophobic gave the best heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The experimental results indicated that the bubble dynamics of the surface is an important factor that determines the nucleate boiling.

Pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were carried out to observe the effects of hybrid wettable patterns on the heat-transfer coefficient (HTC). The parameters of investigation are the number of interlines and the pattern orientation of the modified wettable surface.

تعزيز بركة الغليان نقل الحرارة على أسطواني السطوح مع أنماط قابل للبلل الهجين

In this study, pool-boiling heat-transfer experiments were performed to investigate the effect of the number of interlines and the orientation of the ...

Near-Infrared Temperature Measurement Technique for Water Surrounding an Induction-heated Small Magnetic Sphere

A technique to measure the temperature of water and non-turbid aqueous media surrounding an induction-heated small magnetic sphere is presented. This technique utilizes wavelengths of 1150 and 1412 nm, at which the absorption coefficient of water is dependent on temperature. Water or a non-turbid aqueous gel containing a 2.0-mm- or 0.5-mm-diameter magnetic sphere is irradiated with 1150 nm or 1412 nm incident light, as selected using a narrow bandpass filter; additionally, two-dimensional absorbance images, which are the transverse projections of the absorption coefficient, are acquired via a near-infrared camera. When the three-dimensional distributions of temperature can be assumed to be spherically symmetric, they are estimated by applying inverse Abel transforms to the absorbance profiles. The temperatures were observed to consistently change according to time and the induction heating power.

A technique utilizing wavelengths of 1150 and 1412 nm to measure the temperature of water surrounding an induction-heated small magnetic sphere is presented.

تقنية قياس درجات الحرارة القريبة من الأشعة تحت الحمراء للمياه المحيطة مجال مغناطيسي صغيرة ساخنة التعريفي

A technique to measure the temperature of water and non-turbid aqueous media surrounding an induction-heated small magnetic sphere is presented. This ...

Proof-of-Concept for Gas-Entrapping Membranes Derived from Water-Loving SiO2/Si/SiO2 Wafers for Green Desalination

Desalination through direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) exploits water-repellent membranes to robustly separate counterflowing streams of hot and salty seawater from cold and pure water, thus allowing only pure water vapor to pass through. To achieve this feat, commercial DCMD membranes are derived from or coated with water-repellent perfluorocarbons such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF). However, the use of perfluorocarbons is limiting due to their high cost, non-biodegradability, and vulnerability to harsh operational conditions. Unveiled here is a new class of membranes referred to as gas-entrapping membranes (GEMs) that can robustly entrap air upon immersion in water. GEMs achieve this function by their microstructure rather than their chemical make-up. This work demonstrates a proof-of-concept for GEMs using intrinsically wetting SiO2/Si/SiO2 wafers as the model system; the contact angle of water on SiO2 is &#952;o &#8776; 40&#176;. Silica-GEMs had 300 &#956;m-long cylindrical pores whose diameters at the (2 &#956;m-long) inlet and outlet regions were significantly smaller; this geometrically discontinuous structure, with 90&#176; turns at the inlets and outlets, is known as the &#34;reentrant microtexture&#34;. The microfabrication protocol for silica-GEMs entails designing, photolithography, chrome sputtering, and isotropic and anisotropic etching. Despite the water loving nature of silica, water does not intrude silica-GEMs on submersion. In fact, they robustly entrap air underwater and keep it intact even after six weeks (&#62;106 seconds). On the other hand, silica membranes with simple cylindrical pores spontaneously imbibe water (&#60; 1 s). These findings highlight the potential of the GEMs architecture for separation processes. While the choice of SiO2/Si/SiO2 wafers for GEMs is limited to demonstrating the proof-of-concept, it is expected that the protocols and concepts presented here will advance the rational design of scalable GEMs using inexpensive common materials for desalination and beyond.

Proof-of-Concept for Gas-Entrapping Membranes Derived from Water-Loving SiO2/Si/SiO2 Wafers for Green Desalination

Presented here is a stepwise protocol for realizing gas-entrapping membranes (GEMs) from SiO2/Si wafers using integrated circuit microfabrication technology. When silica-GEMs are immersed in water, the intrusion of water is prevented, despite the water-loving composition of silica.

إثبات مفهوم الأغشية المنضوية للغاز المشتقة من SiO2/ Si/SiO2 رقاقات لتحلية المياه الخضراء

Desalination through direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) exploits water-repellent membranes to robustly separate counterflowing streams of hot and ...

Measuring Electrical Conductivity to Study the Formation of Brines Under Martian Conditions

This paper describes a protocol to design experiments to study the formation of brines under Martian conditions and monitor the process with electrical conductivity measurements. We used the Engineering Qualification Model (EQM) of Habitability: Brines, Irradiation, and Temperature (HABIT)/ExoMars 2022 instrument for the experiment setup but we provide a brief account of constructing a simple and inexpensive electrical conductivity measurement setup. The protocol serves to calibrate the electrical conductivity measurements of the salt deliquescence into brine in a simulated Martian environment. The Martian conditions of temperature (-70 &#176;C to 20 &#176;C), relative humidity (0% to 100%) and pressure (7 - 8 mbar) with carbon-dioxide atmosphere were simulated in the SpaceQ Mars simulation chamber, a facility at the Lule&#229; University of Technology, Sweden. The hydrate form of the known amount of salt accommodated between a pair of electrodes and thus the electrical conductivity measured depends predominantly on its water content and the temperature and relative humidity of the system. Electrical conductivity measurements were carried out at 1 Hz while exposing salts to a continuously increasing relative humidity (to force transitioning through various hydrates) at different Martian temperatures. For demonstration, a day-night cycle at Oxia Planum, Mars (the landing site of ExoMars 2022 mission) was recreated.

The objective of the protocol is to monitor the hydration of salts and the brine formation process. Electrical conductivity is used as the measurement technique. The experiments are performed in a simulated Martian environment of temperature, relative humidity and carbon-dioxide atmosphere.

This paper describes a protocol to design experiments to study the formation of brines under Martian conditions and monitor the process with electrical ...

Chemistry

Experimental Multiscale Methodology for Predicting Material Fouling Resistance

The buildup of fouling deposits in energy systems degrades their ability to transfer heat, reducing efficiency and causing operational issues such as localized corrosion. Each application presents its own challenges. In nuclear power generation, the buildup of CRUD (Chalk River Unidentified Deposits) induces unique, negative effects ranging from reduced heat transfer, to axial power shifting, to CRUD-induced localized corrosion (CILC), the last of which can cause sudden fuel failure. Knowledge of why CRUD forms and how to prevent its adhesion to nuclear fuel rods represents a major step towards eliminating it. This paper demonstrates a methodology to ascertain which materials may resist CRUD adhesion, thereby preventing its initiation and growth. It presents experiments targeted at multiple length scales: pool boiling (macroscale), which simulates CRUD initiation processes in a nuclear reactor, and atomic force microscope (AFM) force spectroscopy (microscale), which yields quantitative measurements of the adhesion between CRUD constituents and candidate CRUD-resistant materials. Early data from both sets of experiments show some correlation, suggesting that AFM force spectroscopy (AFM-FS) may be used to pre-screen materials for fouling resistance. So far, it appears that CRUD constituents adhere well to oxides, while carbides show both greatly reduced adhesion and no adherent CRUD in pool boiling experiments. The relationship between the AFM-FS measurements and the growth of CRUD in the pool boiling experiments may provide insight into the possible factors affecting fouling in nuclear reactors, eventually leading to its elimination.

Fouling, or corrosion product deposition, plagues numerous fields of energy production. At its core is adhesion between dissimilar materials. Understanding and controlling adhesion could reduce or eliminate fouling. This paper demonstrates pool boiling experiments (macroscale) and atomic force microscope force-spectroscopy measurements (microscale), which when in agreement, indicate fouling-resistance.

The buildup of fouling deposits in energy systems degrades their ability to transfer heat, reducing efficiency and causing operational issues such as ...

Biology

Conducting Reactions Below Room Temperature

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Dana Lashley - College of William and Mary
Demonstration by: Matt Smith
When new bonds are formed in the course of a chemical reaction, it requires that the involved species (atoms or molecules) come in very close proximity and collide into one another. The collisions between these species are more frequent and effective the higher the speed at which these molecules are moving. A widely used rule of thumb, which has its roots in the Arrhenius equation1, states that raising the temperature by 10 K will approximately double the rate of a reaction, and raising the temperature by 20 K will quadruple the rate:
(1) <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/10224/10224eq1.jpg" />
Equation (1) is often found in its logarithmic form:
(2) <img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/10224/10224eq2.jpg" />
where k is the rate of the chemical reaction, A is the frequency factor (relating to frequency of molecular collisions), Ea is the activation energy required for the reaction, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the temperature at which the reaction is taking place.
A higher temperature therefore means a reaction is completed much faster. Nonetheless, in some cases it is desirable to carry out reactions at low temperatures, in spite of the lowering effect on the rate of the reaction. A few scenarios in this regard are elaborated upon further below.
When it is useful to run a reaction below room temperature, chemists use cooling baths to maintain a certain temperature or temperature range. Reactions are cooled down to a desired temperature by placing the reaction flask inside an appropriate cooling bath. The reagents in the reaction never come in direct contact with the chemicals in the cooling bath. The cooling bath may consist of a single cryogenic (cooling) component (such as ice, dry ice, or liquid nitrogen) or may be a mixture of the cryogenic component with a certain solvent and/or an additive salt. The purpose of the solvent is to effectively transfer temperature of the cooling agent to the reaction flask, and the purpose of the additive is to lower (or depress) the freezing point of the mixture. (Note that it is possible for a substance to be both a solvent and an additive.)

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Dana Lashley - College of William and Mary
Demonstration by: Matt Smith
When new bonds are formed in the course of a chemical ...

JoVE Science Education

Organic Chemistry

Quenching and Boiling

Source: Alexander S Rattner, Sanjay Adhikari, and Mahdi Nabil; Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Controlled heating followed by rapid cooling is an important element of many materials processing applications. This heat-treating procedure can increase material hardness, which is important for cutting tools or surfaces in high wear environments. The rapid cooling stage is called quenching, and is often performed by immersing materials in a fluid bath (often water or oil). Quenching heat transfer can occur due to forced convection - when the action of rapidly moving material through coolant drives the heat transfer process, and due to free convection - when the reduced density of hot fluid near the material surface causes buoyancy-driven circulation and heat transfer. At high material temperatures, the coolant can boil, leading to increased heat transfer effectiveness. However, when extremely hot materials are quenched, they can be blanketed in relatively low thermal conductivity coolant vapor, leading to poor heat transfer.
In this experiment, quenching heat transfer will be measured for a heated copper cylinder, which is representative of small heat-treated parts. The transient sample temperature profile will be measured during quenching and compared with theoretical results for free convection heat transfer. Boiling phenomena will also be investigated qualitatively.

Quenching, Boiling, Convection and Nusselt Number

Source: Alexander S Rattner, Sanjay Adhikari, and Mahdi Nabil; Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, ...

Mechanical Engineering

Evaluating the Heat Transfer of a Spin-and-Chill

Source: Michael G. Benton and Kerry M. Dooley, Department of Chemical Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
The Spin-and-Chill uses heat transfer and fluid flow fundamentals to chill beverages from room temperature to 38 &#176;F in as little as 2 min. It would take a refrigerator approximately 240 min and an ice chest approximately 40 min to achieve an equivalent temperature change. This is accomplished Spin and Chill by spinning a can or bottle at up to 500 rpm, which creates little or no foaming.
In this experiment, the efficacy of spinning a cylinder (i.e., soda can) at high speeds to cool a soft drink will be evaluated. Operational parameters, such as rpm and spin time, will be varied to assess their effect on heat transfer, and the heat transfer coefficient will be calculated using a lumped parameter model.

Convective Spin-and-Chill Heat Transfer: Lumped Parameter Model

Source: Michael G. Benton and Kerry M. Dooley, Department of Chemical Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
The Spin-and-Chill uses ...