The authors acknowledge the support of research grants from National Natural Science Foundation of China (31371390), the Program of the State High-Tech Development Project (2014AA020702) and the program of Guangdong Science and Technology (2016B030231001).

All animal work was performed in accordance with animal welfare act, institutional guidelines and approved by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, Sun Yat-sen University.
1. Preparation of TEM
<ol>
	<li>Execute mice by cervical dislocation and remove the tongues using sterile surgical scissors and tweezers.</li>
	<li>Immerse the tongues in 75% ethanol for 3 min, then put each tongue into a 1.5 mL Eppendorf (EP) tube with 1 mL of 10 mM sterile phosphate buffered solution (PBS). 
	NOTE: The concentration of PBS in all the following steps is same as the concentration in this step.</li>
	<li>Cell lysis by freeze thaw: Freeze the tongues in EP tubes at -80 &#176;C for 1 h, and then thaw the tongues at room temperature for 45 min for 3 cycles.</li>
	<li>Load each tongue onto a piece of surgical suture using a surgical needle and wrap the end of the suture with a small piece of sterile tinfoil. Perform the operation in a 3.5 cm or 6 cm culture dish containing 75% ethanol in sterile conditions. 
	NOTE: The appropriate length of each piece of surgical suture is about 20 cm, and the appropriate size of each piece of tinfoil is about 0.3 cm2 (1 cm &#215; 0.3 cm). The tongue should be loaded near the tinfoil.</li>
	<li>Rinse each tongue with 3 mL of sterile PBS in a 3.5 cm or 6 cm culture dish for 30 s. Perform this operation in sterile conditions.</li>
	<li>Wash&#160;the tongues with ultrapure water: Add ampicilin into a wide-mouth bottle with 250 mL of sterile ultrapure water to a final concentration of 90 &#181;g/mL. Put the tongues into the bottle containing a stir bar. Tighten the bottle cap with part of the suture remaining outside the bottle. Perform this operation in sterile conditions. 
	NOTE: Up to 5 tongues can be put into the same bottle in consideration of twining of the suture. The tinfoil is at the end of the suture in the bottle to prevent the tongue from slipping off. The tongues should be placed 2 cm high from the bottom of the bottle by adjusting the length of the suture remaining inside the bottle. This note is also for steps 1.8, 1.10, 1.12, and 1.16.</li>
	<li>Put the bottle on a magnetic stirrer for 12 h.</li>
	<li>Wash the&#160;tongues with NaCl: Add ampicilin into a wide-mouth bottle with 250 mL of sterile 1 M NaCl to a final concentration of 90 &#181;g/mL. Move the tongues and the stir bar into the bottle. Tighten the bottle cap with part of the suture remaining outside the bottle. Perform this operation in sterile conditions.</li>
	<li>Put the bottle on a magnetic stirrer for 24 h.</li>
	<li>Cell lysis by Triton X-100: Add ampicilin to a final concentration of 90 &#181;g/mL into a wide-mouth bottle with 250 mL of sterile 2% Triton X-100 in PBS. Move the tongues and the stir bar into the bottle. Tighten the bottle cap with part of the suture remaining outside the bottle. Perform this operation in sterile conditions.</li>
	<li>Put the bottle on a magnetic stirrer for 48 h.</li>
	<li>Wash&#160;tongues with CaCl2/MgCl2: Add ampicilin into a wide-mouth bottle with 250 mL of sterile 5 mM CaCl2/MgCl2 to a final concentration of 90 &#181;g/mL. Move the tongues and the stir bar into the bottle. Tighten the bottle cap with part of the suture remaining outside the bottle. Perform this operation in sterile conditions.</li>
	<li>Put the bottle on a magnetic stirrer for 24 h.</li>
	<li>Digestion by DNase: Add 1 mL of Hank&#39;s balanced salt solution (HBSS) to each EP tube. Add DNase into HBSS respectively to a final concentration of 300 &#181;M. Move each tongue into each EP tube, with part of the suture outside the tube. Perform this operation in sterile conditions. 
	NOTE: Make sure that the part of suture which remains inside the bottles in previous steps also remains inside the EP tube in this step, and make sure that the part of suture which remains outside the bottles in previous steps also remains outside the EP tube in this step.</li>
	<li>Incubate the tongues in EP tubes at 37 &#176;C for 24 h.</li>
	<li>Wash the&#160;tongues with PBS: Add ampicilin into a wide-mouth bottle with 250 mL of sterile PBS to a final concentration of 90 &#181;g/mL. Move the tongues and the stir bar into the bottle. Tighten the bottle cap with part of the suture remaining outside the bottle. Perform this operation in sterile conditions.</li>
	<li>Put the bottle on a magnetic stirrer for 24 h.</li>
	<li>Store the prepared TEM in sterile PBS at 4 &#176;C until use.</li>
</ol>
2. Three-dimensional (3D) Reconstitution of TSCC
<ol>
	<li>Static TSCC model construction
	<ol>
		<li>Seed 1.0 x 106 single TSCC cells (Cal27) into a 3.5 cm culture dish. Add 3 mL of Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle&#39;s medium/F12 (DF12) containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 90 &#181;g/mL ampicilin, and 90 &#181;g/mL kanamycin.</li>
		<li>Culture the Cal27 cells at 37 &#176;C for 2 to 3 days. Make sure that the cells cover at least 60% area of the dish bottom.</li>
		<li>Load TEM onto the Cal27 monolayer in the culture dish.</li>
		<li>Put the dish into a CO2 incubator at 37 &#176;C for 28 days.</li>
		<li>Refresh the culture medium every day during the cell culture process. The CO2 concentration in the incubator is 5%.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Stirred TSCC model construction
	<ol>
		<li>Preparation of a self-made stirred minibioreactor
		<ol>
			<li>Take out the plunger from a 10 mL syringe.</li>
			<li>Dig a hole (diameter of 1 cm) near the lower terminal of the rod and load a stir bar in the hole.</li>
			<li>Dig a hole (diameter of 0.5 cm) at the center of the bottle cap of a plastic wide-mouth bottle and put the piston rod through the cap.</li>
			<li>Cut half of a 50 mL centrifuge tube and weld it on the outer side of the bottle cap.</li>
			<li>Attach fishhooks to the rod by wrapping the rod with fishing lines which are tied to the fishhooks. 
			NOTE: Up to 4 fishhooks can be attached to a rod.</li>
			<li>Autoclave the self-made complex before use. 
			NOTE: Do not autoclave the plastic wide-mouth bottle. Use a new sterile plastic wide-mouth bottle while culturing cells.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Dynamic cell culture
	<ol>
		<li>Seed 1.0 x 106 single Cal27 cells in the self-made minibioreactor. Add 150 mL of DF12 medium which contains 10% FBS, 90 &#181;g/mL ampicilin, and 90 &#181;g/mL kanamycin.</li>
		<li>Load TEM onto the minibioreactor using the fishhooks attached to the rod.</li>
		<li>Tighten the bottle cap and put the minibioreactor on a magnetic stirrer. Activate the minibioreactor at 200 rpm in a CO2 incubator at 37 &#176;C for 7 to 14 days. 
		NOTE: The concentration of CO2 in the CO2 incubator is 5%.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

A well-established protocol for decellularized ECM fabrication should retain the native ECM composition while removing cellular components in tissues nearly completely21. Despite currently reported decellularization protocols which require perfusion through the vasculature to remove cellular materials by convective transport, mechanical agitation was adopted here, known as a traditional simple and cheap method22,23,<sup class="x...

The tongue has various important functions, such as deglutition, articulation, and tasting. Thus, the impairment of tongue function has great impact on patients&#39; quality of life1. The most common malignancy in the oral cavity is tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC), which usually occurs in people who drink alcohol or smoke tobacco2.
In recent years, little progress has been achieved in fundamental research on TSCC. The lack of efficient in vitro research models remains to be one of the biggest problems. Thus, the extracellular matrix (ECM) turns out to be a potential solution. Since ECM is a complex network frame composed of highly organized matrix components, scaffold materials having an ECM-like structure and composition would be competent for cancer research. Decellularized ECM can perfectly provide the niche for the cells from the same origin in vitro, which turns out to be the most significant advantage of ECM.
ECM can be retained with cellular components being removed from the tissues through the decellularization using detergents and enzymes. Various ECM components, including collagen, fibronectin, and laminin in decellularized matrix provide a native-tissue-like microenvironment for cultured cells, promoting the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of the cells3. Moreover, the immunogenicity for transplantation can be reduced to a minimal level with the absence of cellular components in ECM.
So far, fabrication methods for decellularized ECM have been tried in different tissues and organs, such as heart4,5,6,7, liver8,9,10,11, lung12,13,14,15,16,17, and kidney18,19,20. However, no relevant research has be found on similar work in the tongue to the best of our knowledge.
In this study, decellularized tongue extracellular matrix (TEM) was fabricated both efficiently and cheaply by a series of physical, chemical, and enzymatic treatment. Then the TEM was used to recapitulate TSCC in vitro, showing an appropriate simulation for TSCC behavior and development. TEM has good biocompatibility as well as the ability to guide the cells to the tissue-specific niche, which indicates that TEM may have great potential in TSCC research3. The protocol shown here provides a choice for researchers studying on either pathogenesis or clinical therapies of TSCC.

<table><tbody><tr><td>C57-BL/6J mice</td><td>Sun Yat-sen University Laboratory Animal Center</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol</td><td>Guangzhou Chemical Reagent Factory</td><td>HB15-GR-2.5L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium chloride</td><td>Sangon Biotech</td><td>A501218</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potassium chloride</td><td>Sangon Biotech</td><td>A100395</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dibasic Sodium Phosphate</td><td>Guangzhou Chemical Reagent Factory</td><td>BE14-GR-500G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potassium Phosphate Monobasic&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sangon Biotech</td><td>A501211</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1.5 mL EP tube</td><td>Axygen</td><td>MCT-150-A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ultra-low temperature freezer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>3.5 cm cell culture dish</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>153066</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6 cm cell culture dish</td><td>Greiner</td><td>628160</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Triton X-100</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>V900502</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Calcium chloride</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>746495</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Magnesium chloride</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>449164</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DNase</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>D5025</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Magnesium sulphate</td><td>Sangon Biotech</td><td>A601988</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glucose</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>158968</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium bicarbonate</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S5761</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ampicillin</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A9393</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Kanamycin</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>PHR1487</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Surgical suture</td><td>Shanghai Jinhuan</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>250 mL wide-mouth bottle</td><td>SHUNIU</td><td>1407</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Magnetic stirrer</td><td>AS ONE</td><td>1-4602-32</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubator</td><td>SHEL LAB</td><td>SCO5A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10 mL syringe</td><td>Hunan Pingan</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50 mL centrifuge tube</td><td>Greiner</td><td>227270</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cal27 cell</td><td>Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai Cell Bank</td><td></td><td>Tongue squamous cell carcinoma cell line</td></tr><tr><td>U2OS cell</td><td>Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai Cell Bank</td><td></td><td>Human osteosarcoma cell line</td></tr><tr><td>DMEM/F12</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>D0547</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium pyruvate</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P5280</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hepes free acid</td><td>BBI</td><td>A600264</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>FBS</td><td>Hyclone</td><td>SH30084.03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>4 &amp;deg;C fridge</td><td>Haier</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Water purifier</td><td>ELGA</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hemocytometer</td><td>BLAU</td><td>717805</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

fabrication of tongue extracellular matrix and reconstitution of tongue squamous cell carcinoma in vitro

In order to construct an effective and realistic model for tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) in vitro, the methods were created to produce decellularized tongue extracellular matrix (TEM) which provides functional scaffolds for TSCC construction. TEM provides an in vitro niche for cell growth, differentiation, and cell migration. The microstructures of native extracellular matrix (ECM) and biochemical compositions retained in the decellularized matrix provide tissue-specific niches for anchoring cells. The fabrication of TEM can be realized by deoxyribonuclease (DNase) digestion accompanied with a serious of organic or inorganic pretreatment. This protocol is easy to operate and ensures high efficiency for the decellularization. The TEM showed favorable cytocompatibility for TSCC cells under static or stirred culture conditions, which enables the construction of the TSCC model. A self-made bioreactor was also used for the persistent stirred condition for cell culture. Reconstructed TSCC using TEM showed the characteristics and properties resembling clinical TSCC histopathology, suggesting the potential in TSCC research.

This protocol for the preparation of TEM turns out to be efficient and appropriate. The TEM showed perfect decellularization compared with native tongue tissues. The efficacy of decellularization was confirmed by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining (Figure 1A-B). The HE staining results revealed complete disappearance of nuclear staining in TEM (Figure 1B). Moreover, DNA content quantification from p...

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Fabrication of Tongue Extracellular Matrix and Reconstitution of Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma In Vitro

A method is shown here for the preparation of the tongue extracellular matrix (TEM) with efficient decellularization. The TEM can be used as functional scaffolds for the reconstruction of a tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) model under static or stirred culture conditions.

Fabrication of Tongue Extracellular Matrix and Reconstitution of Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma In Vitro

In order to construct an effective and realistic model for tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) in vitro, the methods were created to produce ...

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6.2K Views.  Sun Yat-sen University. A method is shown here for the preparation of the tongue extracellular matrix (TEM) with efficient decellularization. The TEM can be used as functional scaffolds for the reconstruction of a tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) model under static or stirred culture conditions.

Video: Fabrication of Tongue Extracellular Matrix and Reconstitution of Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma In Vitro

Multi-photon Imaging of Tumor Cell Invasion in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient management strategies. Orthotopic mouse models of oral cancer have been developed to facilitate the study of factors that impact invasion and serve as model system for evaluating anti-tumor therapeutics. In these systems, visualization of disseminated tumor cells within oral cavity tissues has typically been conducted by either conventional histology or with in vivo bioluminescent methods. A primary drawback of these techniques is the inherent inability to accurately visualize and quantify early tumor cell invasion arising from the primary site in three dimensions. Here we describe a protocol that combines an established model for squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue (SCOT) with two-photon imaging to allow multi-vectorial visualization of lingual tumor spread. The OSC-19 head and neck tumor cell line was stably engineered to express the F-actin binding peptide LifeAct fused to the mCherry fluorescent protein (LifeAct-mCherry). Fox1nu/nu mice injected with these cells reliably form tumors that allow the tongue to be visualized by ex-vivo application of two-photon microscopy. This technique allows for the orthotopic visualization of the tumor mass and locally invading cells in excised tongues without disruption of the regional tumor microenvironment. In addition, this system allows for the quantification of tumor cell invasion by calculating distances that invaded cells move from the primary tumor site. Overall this procedure provides an enhanced model system for analyzing factors that contribute to SCOT invasion and therapeutic treatments tailored to prevent local invasion and distant metastatic spread. This method also has the potential to be ultimately combined with other imaging modalities in an in vivo setting.

A comprehensive overview of the techniques involved in generating a mouse model of oral cancer and quantitative monitoring of tumor invasion within the tongue through multi-photon microscopy of labeled cells is presented. This system can serve as a useful platform for the molecular assessment and drug efficacy of anti-invasive compounds.

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient ...

Medicine

Fully Human Tumor-based Matrix in Three-dimensional Spheroid Invasion Assay

Two-dimensional cell culture-based assays are commonly used in in vitro cancer research. However, they lack several basic elements that form the tumor microenvironment. To obtain more reliable in vitro results, several three-dimensional (3D) cell culture assays have been introduced. These assays allow cancer cells to interact with the extracellular matrix. This interaction affects cell behavior, such as proliferation and invasion, as well as cell morphology. Additionally, this interaction could induce or suppress the expression of several pro- and anti-tumorigenic molecules. Spheroid invasion assay was developed to provide a suitable 3D in vitro method to study cancer cell invasion. Currently, animal-derived matrices, such as mouse sarcoma-derived matrix (MSDM) and rat tail type I collagen, are mainly used in the spheroid invasion assays. Taking into consideration the differences between the human tumor microenvironment and animal-derived matrices, a human myoma-derived matrix (HMDM) was developed from benign uterus leiomyoma tissue. It has been shown that HMDM induces migration and invasion of carcinoma cells better than MSDM. This protocol provided a simple, reproducible, and reliable 3D human tumor-based spheroid invasion assay using the HMDM/fibrin matrix. It also includes detailed instructions on imaging and analysis. The spheroids grow in a U-shaped ultra-low attachment plate within the HMDM/fibrin matrix and invade through it. The invasion is daily imaged, measured, and analyzed using ilastik and Fiji ImageJ software. The assay platform was demonstrated using human laryngeal primary and metastatic squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. However, the protocol is suitable also for other solid cancer cell lines.

Tumor microenvironment is an essential part of cancer growth and invasion. To mimic carcinoma progression, a biologically relevant human matrix is needed. This protocol introduces an improvement for the in vitro three-dimensional spheroid invasion assay by applying a human leiomyoma-based matrix. The protocol also introduces a computer-based cell invasion analysis.

Two-dimensional cell culture-based assays are commonly used in in vitro cancer research. However, they lack several basic elements that form the tumor ...

In Vitro Establishment of a Genetically Engineered Murine Head and Neck Cancer Cell Line using an Adeno-Associated Virus-Cas9 System

The use of primary normal epithelial cells makes it possible to reproducibly induce genomic alterations required for cellular transformation by introducing specific mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, using clustered regulatory interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-based genome editing technology in mice. This technology allows us to accurately mimic the genetic changes that occur in human cancers using mice. By genetically transforming murine primary cells, we can better study cancer development, progression, treatment, and diagnosis. In this study, we used Cre-inducible Cas9 mouse tongue epithelial cells to enable genome editing using adeno-associated virus (AAV) in vitro. Specifically, by altering KRAS, p53, and APC in normal tongue epithelial cells, we generated a murine head and neck cancer (HNC) cell line in vitro,which is tumorigenic in syngeneic mice. The method presented here describes in detail how to generate HNC cell lines with specific genomic alterations and explains their suitability for predicting tumor progression in syngeneic mice. We envision that this promising method will be informative and useful to study tumor biology and therapy of HNC.

Development of murine models with specific genes mutated in head and neck cancer patients is required for understanding of neoplasia. Here, we present a protocol for in vitro transformation of primary murine tongue cells using an adeno-associated virus-Cas9 system to generate murine HNC cell lines with specific genomic alterations.

The use of primary normal epithelial cells makes it possible to reproducibly induce genomic alterations required for cellular transformation by ...

Multidimensional Coculture System to Model Lung Squamous Carcinoma Progression

Tumor-stroma interactions play a critical role in the development of lung squamous carcinoma (LUSC). However, understanding how these dynamic interactions contribute to tissue architectural changes observed during tumorigenesis remains challenging due to the lack of appropriate models. In this protocol, we describe the generation of a 3D coculture model using a LUSC primary cell culture known as TUM622. TUM622 cells were established from a LUSC patient-derived xenograft (PDX) and have the unique property to form acinar-like structures when seeded in a basement membrane matrix. We demonstrate that TUM622 acini in 3D coculture recapitulate key features of tissue architecture during LUSC progression as well as the dynamic interactions between LUSC cells and components of the tumor microenvironment (TME), including the extracellular matrix (ECM) and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). We further adapt our principal 3D culturing protocol to demonstrate how this system could be utilized for various downstream analyses. Overall, this organoid model creates a biologically rich and adaptable platform that enables one to gain insight into the cell-intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms that promote the disruption of epithelial architectures during carcinoma progression and will aid the search for new therapeutic targets and diagnostic markers.

An in vitro model system was developed to capture tissue architectural changes during lung squamous carcinoma (LUSC) progression in a 3-dimensional (3D) co-culture with cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs). This organoid system provides a unique platform to investigate the roles of diverse tumor cell-intrinsic and extrinsic changes that modulate the tumor phenotype.

Tumor-stroma interactions play a critical role in the development of lung squamous carcinoma (LUSC). However, understanding how these dynamic interactions ...

Tissue Engineering of Tumor Stromal Microenvironment with Application to Cancer Cell Invasion

3D organotypic cultures of epithelial cells on a matrix embedded with mesenchymal cells are widely used to study epithelial cell differentiation and invasion. Rat tail type I collagen and/or matrix derived from Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm mouse sarcoma cells have been traditionally employed as the substrates to model the matrix or stromal microenvironment into which mesenchymal cells (usually fibroblasts) are populated. Although experiments using such matrices are very informative, it can be argued that due to an overriding presence of a single protein (such as in type I Collagen) or a high content of basement membrane components and growth factors (such as in matrix derived from mouse sarcoma cells), these substrates do not best reflect the contribution to matrix composition made by the stromal cells themselves. To study native matrices produced by primary dermal fibroblasts isolated from patients with a tumor prone, genetic blistering disorder (recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa), we have adapted an existing native matrix protocol to study tumor cell invasion. Fibroblasts are induced to produce their own matrix over a prolonged period in culture. This native matrix is then detached from the culture dish and epithelial cells are seeded onto it before the entire coculture is raised to the air-liquid interface. Cellular differentiation and/or invasion can then be assessed over time. This technique provides the ability to assess epithelial-mesenchymal cell interactions in a 3D setting without the need for a synthetic or foreign matrix with the only disadvantage being the prolonged period of time required to produce the native matrix. Here we describe the application of this technique to assess the ability of a single molecule expressed by fibroblasts, type VII collagen, to inhibit tumor cell invasion.

Tissue engineered fibroblast-derived native matrix is an emerging tool to generate a stromal substrate which supports epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation. Here a protocol applying this methodology to assess the impact of different stromal cell types on tumor cell biology is presented.

3D organotypic cultures of epithelial cells on a matrix embedded with mesenchymal cells are widely used to study epithelial cell differentiation and ...

Bioengineering

Modeling Oral-Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma in 3D Organoids

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is prevalent worldwide, accounting for 90% of all esophageal cancer cases each year, and is the deadliest of all human squamous cell carcinomas. Despite recent progress in defining the molecular changes accompanying ESCC initiation and development, patient prognosis remains poor. The functional annotation of these molecular changes is the necessary next step and requires models that both capture the molecular features of ESCC and can be readily and inexpensively manipulated for functional annotation. Mice treated with the tobacco smoke mimetic 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (4NQO) predictably form ESCC and esophageal preneoplasia. Of note, 4NQO lesions also arise in the oral cavity, most commonly in the tongue, as well as the forestomach, which all share the stratified squamous epithelium. However, these mice cannot be simply manipulated for functional hypothesis testing, as generating isogenic mouse models is time- and resource-intensive. Herein, we overcome this limitation by generating single cell-derived three-dimensional (3D) organoids from mice treated with 4NQO to characterize murine ESCC or preneoplastic cells ex vivo. These organoids capture the salient features of ESCC and esophageal preneoplasia, can be cheaply and quickly leveraged to form isogenic models, and can be utilized for syngeneic transplantation experiments. We demonstrate how to generate 3D organoids from normal, preneoplastic, and SCC murine esophageal tissue and maintain and cryopreserve these organoids. The applications of these versatile organoids are broad and include the utilization of genetically engineered mice and further characterization by flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry, the generation of isogeneic organoid lines using CRISPR technologies, and drug screening or syngeneic transplantation. We believe that the widespread adoption of the techniques demonstrated in this protocol will accelerate progress in this field to combat the severe burden of ESCC.

This protocol describes the key steps to generate and characterize murine oral-esophageal 3D organoids that represent normal, preneoplastic, and squamous cell carcinoma lesions induced via chemical carcinogenesis.

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is prevalent worldwide, accounting for 90% of all esophageal cancer cases each year, and is the deadliest of all ...

Cell Dissociation from the Tongue Epithelium and Mesenchyme/Connective Tissue of Embryonic-Day 12.5 and 8-Week-Old Mice

Cell dissociation has been an essential procedure for studies at the individual-cell level and/or at a cell-population level (e.g.,&#160;single cell RNA sequencing and primary cell culture). Yielding viable, healthy cells in large quantities is critical, and the optimal conditions to do so are tissue dependent. Cell populations in the tongue epithelium and underlying mesenchyme/connective tissue are heterogeneous and tissue structures vary in different regions and at different developmental stages. We have tested protocols for isolating cells from the mouse tongue epithelium and mesenchyme/connective tissue in the early developmental [embryonic day 12.5 (E12.5)] and young adult (8-week) stages. A clean separation between the epithelium and underlying mesenchyme/connective tissue was easy to accomplish. However, to further process and isolate cells, yielding viable healthy cells in large quantities, and careful selection of enzymatic digestion buffer, incubation time, and centrifugation speed and time are critical. Incubation of separated epithelium or underlying mesenchyme/connective tissue in 0.25% Trypsin-EDTA for 30 min at 37 &#176;C, followed by centrifugation at 200 x g for 8 min resulted in a high yield of cells at a high viability rate (&#62;90%) regardless of the mouse stages and tongue regions. Moreover, we found that both dissociated epithelial and mesenchymal/connective tissue cells from embryonic and adult tongues could survive in the cell culture-based medium for at least 3 h without a significant decrease of cell viability. The protocols will be useful for studies that require the preparation of isolated cells from mouse tongues at early developmental (E12.5) and young adult (8-week) stages requiring cell dissociation from different tissue compartments.

We have developed a generalized protocol to dissociate a large quantity of high-quality single cells from the epithelium and mesenchyme/connective tissue of embryonic and adult mouse tongues.

Cell dissociation has been an essential procedure for studies at the individual-cell level and/or at a cell-population level (e.g.,&#160;single cell RNA ...

Developmental Biology

Generation and Characterization of Murine Oral Mucosal Organoid Cultures

The mucous lining covering the inside of our mouth, the oral mucosa, is a highly compartmentalized tissue and can be subdivided into the buccal mucosa, gingiva, lips, palate, and tongue. Its uppermost layer, the oral epithelium, is maintained by adult stem cells throughout life. Proliferation and differentiation of adult epithelial stem cells have been intensively studied using in vivo mouse models as well as two-dimensional (2D) feeder-cell based in vitro models. Complementary to these methods is organoid technology, where adult stem cells are embedded into an extracellular matrix (ECM)-rich hydrogel and provided with a culture medium containing a defined cocktail of growth factors. Under these conditions, adult stem cells proliferate and spontaneously form three-dimensional (3D) cell clusters, the so-called organoids. Organoid cultures were initially established from murine small intestinal epithelial stem cells. However, the method has since been adapted for other epithelial stem cell types. Here, we describe a protocol for the generation and characterization of murine oral mucosal organoid cultures. Primary epithelial cells are isolated from murine tongue tissue, embedded into an ECM hydrogel, and cultured in a medium containing: epidermal growth factor (EGF), R-spondin, and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 10. Within 7 to 14 days of initial seeding, the resulting organoids can be passaged for further expansion and cryopreservation. We additionally present strategies for the characterization of established organoid cultures via 3D whole-mount imaging and gene-expression analysis. This protocol may serve as a tool to investigate oral epithelial stem cell behavior ex vivo in a reductionist manner.

We present a method for the generation and characterization of oral mucosal organoid cultures derived from the tongue epithelium of adult mice.

The mucous lining covering the inside of our mouth, the oral mucosa, is a highly compartmentalized tissue and can be subdivided into the buccal mucosa, ...

Biology

Isolation of Circumvallate Papillae (CVP) Epithelium from Mouse Model: An Enzymatic Procedure to Separate CVP Epithelium from Mouse Tongue

Source: Shechtman, L. A. et al. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/video/62300" target="_blank">Generation and Culture of Lingual Organoids Derived from Adult Mouse Taste Stem Cells</a>. J. Vis. Exp. (2021)
In this video, we describe the isolation of circumvallate papillae (CVP) epithelium from a murine tongue.

Source: Shechtman, L. A. et al. Generation and Culture of Lingual Organoids Derived from Adult Mouse Taste Stem Cells. J. Vis. Exp. (2021)
In this video, ...

JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments

Rodent Models

Adult

Isolation and Culture of Murine Tongue Epithelial Cells: A Procedure to Isolate and Culture Tongue Epithelial Cells from Mouse Model

Source: Prasad, M. et al. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/video/60410" target="_blank">In Vitro Establishment of a Genetically Engineered Murine Head and Neck Cancer Cell Line Using an Adeno-Associated Virus-Cas9 System.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2020)
In this video, we describe the isolation of epithelial cells from a murine tongue. These cells can be further cultured to give rise to cell colonies.

Source: Prasad, M. et al. In Vitro Establishment of a Genetically Engineered Murine Head and Neck Cancer Cell Line Using an Adeno-Associated Virus-Cas9 ...

Fabrication of Tongue Extracellular Matrix and Reconstitution of Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma In Vitro

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Chapters in this video

Multi-photon Imaging of Tumor Cell Invasion in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Fully Human Tumor-based Matrix in Three-dimensional Spheroid Invasion Assay

In Vitro Establishment of a Genetically Engineered Murine Head and Neck Cancer Cell Line using an Adeno-Associated Virus-Cas9 System

Multidimensional Coculture System to Model Lung Squamous Carcinoma Progression

Tissue Engineering of Tumor Stromal Microenvironment with Application to Cancer Cell Invasion

Modeling Oral-Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma in 3D Organoids

Cell Dissociation from the Tongue Epithelium and Mesenchyme/Connective Tissue of Embryonic-Day 12.5 and 8-Week-Old Mice

Generation and Characterization of Murine Oral Mucosal Organoid Cultures

Isolation of Circumvallate Papillae (CVP) Epithelium from Mouse Model: An Enzymatic Procedure to Separate CVP Epithelium from Mouse Tongue

Isolation and Culture of Murine Tongue Epithelial Cells: A Procedure to Isolate and Culture Tongue Epithelial Cells from Mouse Model