The authors thank daycare centers (Wasko, Alblasserwaard) for their support in recruiting the control group, and Mark Vonk for his help in data collection in the control group. The authors also thank the children from the control group and the children who are clients from Royal Dutch Visio for participation in the study. The authors are grateful to the children and their parents for participation in the video.
The development of the method was supported by a grant from the Novum Foundation: a non-profit organization providing financial support to (research) projects that improve the quality of life of individuals with a visual impairment (www.stichtingnovum.org). Financial support for the current study was provided by 'ZonMw Inzicht' (Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development-Insight Society), grant number: 60-00635-98-10.

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interest.

The presented measurement set-up combined with quantitative eye movement analysis provides a distinct characterization of visual processing functions in various groups of children with oculomotor and visual impairments. The key feature of this paradigm is that performance is based on eye movement responses to visual stimuli that are triggered in a reflexive manner. No specific verbal instructions are given and there is no need for children to verbally respond. The parameters RTF, GFA and FD show significant differences between groups of typically developing- and visually impaired children, despite the limited spread of parameter values that exists in each group (Figures 4-6). Thus, depending on the evaluated parameter, some typically developing children can show deviant performance, while some children with visual impairments show &#39;normal&#39; performance. Ultimately, multiple outcome measures in response to multiple visual modalities should be considered on an individual level. A summary of all outcome measures provides a unique characterization of visual information processing capacities, which may be converted in a visual profile in children from 6 months of age.
Several studies have shown the value of remote eye tracking in vulnerable populations of children, to infer attentional or psychological capacities9,12,18. Whereas most studies rely on behavioral observations and the use of instructions, a distinct feature of the current paradigm is the nonverbal, quantitative approach. Critical steps within the protocol therefore include the stimuli that are based on preferential looking, the mobile measurement set-up, and the custom calibration and analysis software. The presented extension of observation-based results with elaborate analysis methods provides standardized and detailed results on visual processing functions. This is in line with work on the assessment of infant visual acuity with an eye tracker14, and work on gaze control in various disorders7. The method is flexible and enables mobile assessment which is indispensable when performing clinical assessments in young children or children with multiple disabilities. Therefore, it is suited to measure oculomotor and visual processing capacities in virtually all children that are capable of watching a monitor.
The significance of this method with respect to existing visual diagnostic methods (i.e., validity) has been studied as a first step toward clinical implementation. The present paradigm was combined with currently used visual function assessment (VFA) in children. Observations of oculomotor and visual functions that are based on eye movement recordings were comparable with standard behavioral observations of these functions. Moreover, eye tracking parameters, e.g., fixation duration and saccadic direction, provided additional value in characterizing oculomotor and visual performance in children during VFA (Kooiker MJG et. al., 2015, submitted). The major gain of the presented method lies in the possibility to assess more visual functions than is currently done in visual function assessments at a young age, and to assess them in a quantitative manner26. A limitation with respect to existing methods is that, without adaptations, it is not yet possible to thoroughly assess visual acuity or visual field with the present test battery14.
Although we limited ourselves to the presentation of results from cartoon stimuli, in future applications different visual modalities can be tested using other stimuli (e.g., distinct forms, motion, color and contrast information)22,20,25. That way, specific visual processing areas beyond the primary visual pathways are targeted, such as visual association areas in temporal or parietal cortex. A limitation of the method is that the present visual stimuli merely trigger the detection of visual input, and invoke the initial stage of visual processing. These stimuli do not target higher-order functions that become relevant after stimulus detection and that are normally measured with visual perception tests. Although their execution without the use of communication is challenging, an eye tracking-based paradigm is a promising future format for the detection of perception-related information, e.g. visual search, -memory or -selective attention.
In sum, detailed eye movement responses to various types of visual stimulation provide a comprehensive characterization of visual information processing functions, early in development. Consequently, for each child an individual visual profile in terms of intact and impaired functions can be created. Such a profile may provide detailed information about strengths and weaknesses in oculomotor and visual function. It may be used as a starting point for support in daily life, and for teacher and caregiver education. The quantitative information that has become available with this method can be advantageous for following visual development over time, and for monitoring visual interventions and rehabilitation programs.

The prevalence of brain damage-related visual problems in children has increased. Because visual problems can have great impact on a child&#39;s development, early detection in young infants and children at risk is highly important. At present, visual function tests to assess visual sensory functions such as visual acuity and contrast sensitivity (e.g., optotype tests) are applicable in children from 1-2 years of age1. In younger children these tests are based on structured observations of a child&#39;s viewing behavior to visual information. The interpretation of such behavior, i.e., by looking at a child&#39;s eye movements, can be hampered by oculomotor or attentional dysfunctions of the child, or even by viewing behavior of the observer. Cerebrally mediated visual functions such as visuospatial memory and object recognition are assessed with visual perception tests (e.g., DTVP2). These tests require verbal instructions and communication and can be used from 4-5 years of age. In view of the postnatal development of the visual system and to take advantage of the high level of plasticity early in life, it is desirable to establish the presence and extent of impairments in visual information processing as early as possible. That way, children with (cerebral) visual impairments may maximally benefit from early intervention, visual stimulation, or supportive strategies. Consequently, there is a need for an assessment method of visual information processing that can be used without verbal communication in children and that is based on quantitative results.
Eye movements are a good model to study visually guided orienting behavior to stimuli3,4, and related perceptual and cognitive functions5. Eye movements indicate the focus of visual attention in scenes, and are known to result either from bottom-up (reflexive, salience-driven) or from top-down (intentional, cognitive) processes6. Eye movements are used to direct the fovea, i.e., sharpness of vision, to new objects. The visual content of an object of interest is processed via pathways that run from the retina via the lateral geniculate nucleus to primary visual cortex (V1), and that distribute themselves over cerebral processing areas (e.g., involved in attention, spatial orientation, recognition, memory, and emotions). Eye movements are both a prerequisite for, and a sequel to visual information processing.
Developments in the measurement of eye movements with infrared eye trackers give the possibility to obtain quantitative parameters of oculomotor and visual function. Automated eye trackers are nowadays omnipresent in medical and psychological research involving healthy and clinical populations. Their purpose is not only to study oculomotor function and attention allocation7, but also to answer questions about behavioral and psychological mechanisms8,9. With the rise of accessible and commercial eye tracking systems, they are increasingly used to test vulnerable populations of infants and children10-12, without constraining conditions, complex instructions, or active cooperation12,13. Due to the close coupling of the oculomotor and visual system on an ocular and cerebral level, eye tracking-based methods are pre-eminently suited to assess visual capacities. So far, besides the measurement of visual acuity14, the use of the technique in assessing visual function in children has received relatively little attention.
Our group has combined eye movement measurements with a preferential looking paradigm13. Preferential looking is the preference to fixate patterned surfaces over homogeneous ones15. This principle is applied by using visual stimuli with a target area in one of four quadrants, which differ from the background in terms of one specific visual feature, e.g. coherent form, coherent motion, contrast and color. These visual features are known to be processed by separate peripheral and central visual pathways. For example, information about form is processed by ventral pathways, from V1 to the temporal cortex. Information about motion is processed by dorsal pathways, from V1 to posterior parietal cortex16. Hence, specific stimuli are used to trigger visual information processing in distinct areas of the visual system. If a child is able to see the specific visual information that is presented, that information will attract visual attention in the form of eye movements. These reflexive eye movement responses to the visual stimuli are recorded with a remote infrared eye tracker. That way, eye movement measures provide a communication-free assessment of the quality of various aspects of visual information processing13.
Eye movements provide not only observational data of a child&#39;s viewing behavior11, but can also be used for more objective outcome measures. In combination with a carefully designed test paradigm, eye movements can give precise and objective information on visual information processing. This information is obtained by calculating quantitative parameters based on temporal and spatial properties of eye movement responses. Examples of such parameters are reaction time13, fixation time17, saccade metrics7 or cumulative attention allocation18. The availability of these parameters is new to the field of visual assessment in children at a young developmental stage.
The goal of this paper is to present an eye tracking-based method to measure visual information processing in children from the age of 6 months. The measurement set-up and procedure (i.e. nonverbal paradigm, post-calibration, and mobility) specifically apply to using this method in children at risk. A crucial aspect is the analysis of quantitative visual response parameters, i.e. reaction time, fixation duration, and fixation accuracy. These parameters are used to provide reference areas of visually guided responses in typically developing children, to characterize visual information processing in risk groups of children with visual impairments.

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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Tobii T60 XL</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Tobii Technology: http://www.tobii.com&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:453px;">http://www.tobii.com/en/eye-tracking-research/global/products/hardware/tobii-t60xl-eye-tracker/</td>
			<td style="width:251px;">remote infrared eye tracker&#160;</td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Tobii Studio</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">Tobii Technology: http://www.tobii.com&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:453px;">http://www.tobii.com/en/eye-tracking-research/global/products/software/tobii-studio-analysis-software/</td>
			<td>eye tracker software</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">MATLAB</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">MathWorks Inc</td>
			<td style="width:453px;">http://nl.mathworks.com/products/matlab/</td>
			<td>data analysis software</td>
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a method to quantify visual information processing in children using eye tracking

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational methods, it is difficult to make a quantitative assessment of a child's visual problems. This limits accurate diagnostics in children under the age of 4 years and in children with intellectual disabilities. Here we describe a quantitative method that overcomes these problems. The method uses a remote eye tracker and a four choice preferential looking paradigm to measure eye movement responses to different visual stimuli. The child sits without head support in front of a monitor with integrated infrared cameras. In one of four monitor quadrants a visual stimulus is presented. Each stimulus has a specific visual modality with respect to the background, e.g., form, motion, contrast or color. From the reflexive eye movement responses to these specific visual modalities, output parameters such as reaction times, fixation accuracy and fixation duration are calculated to quantify a child's viewing behavior. With this approach, the quality of visual information processing can be assessed without the use of communication. By comparing results with reference values obtained in typically developing children from 0-12 years, the method provides a characterization of visual information processing in visually impaired children. The quantitative information provided by this method can be advantageous for the field of clinical visual assessment and rehabilitation in multiple ways. The parameter values provide a good basis to: (i) characterize early visual capacities and consequently to enable early interventions; (ii) compare risk groups and follow visual development over time; and (iii), construct an individual visual profile for each child.

The presented method has been applied in two populations of children: a control group of 337 children without visual impairments (mean age (SD) = 4.8 (3.3) years), and a group of 119 children with visual impairments (mean age (SD) = 8.10 (2.96) years) who were recruited at a visual rehabilitation center (Royal Dutch Visio, the Netherlands). Of these children, 74 had ocular visual impairment and 45 had cerebral visual impairments. The results of all control children are visualized in Figures 4-6, separately for reaction time, fixation duration, and gaze fixation area. Reference limits (indicated by black lines) were constructed by fitting a logarithmic function to the control data based on age. These figures serve as a basis for characterizing visual processing functions in children with visual impairments, in terms of impaired or intact function.
The parameter reaction time to fixation (RTF) differentiates between children with- and without visual impairments, and between distinct types of visual impairments. RTF is a measure for the time that is needed to process visual information and execute an eye movement (for calculations refer to a previous study13). The lower the RTF value, the faster the eye movement response. Good repeatability of RTF has been shown in a group of typically developing children from 0-12 years13,21,22, and in children with various types of visual impairments21. Figure 4 shows average RTF to the dynamic Cartoon stimulus over age, for control children, children with cerebral visual impairment (CVI) and children with ocular visual impairment (OVI). RTF values are significantly higher in children with- compared to children without visual impairments (mean difference = 85 msec; t = -13.91, p &#60;0.001, Cohen&#39;s d = 1.32) and in children with CVI compared to OVI (mean difference = 99 msec; t = -6.90, p &#60;0.001, Cohen&#39;s d = 1.25). These results confirm previously published findings on RTF in subgroups of the present dataset20,24,25.
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4.&#160;Average RTF in children with- and without visual impairments. Average RTF values in ms (y-axis) per child, over age (x-axis). Values are shown separately for control children (open circles), children with OVI (black circles), and children with CVI (crosses). The black line represents the upper reference limit of RTF in the control group. RTF values above this line are regarded as deviant, i.e. long reaction times. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Fixation duration is the total amount of time that gaze was fixated within the target area. FD is a measure for sustained visual attention, and is dependent on stimulus presentation time, which is 4 sec in the present example. The parameter fixation duration (FD) also differentiates between children with and without different types of visual impairments. Figure 5 shows mean FD over age, separately for control children, children with CVI, and children with OVI. FD is significantly shorter in children with- than in children without visual impairments (mean difference = 850 msec; t = 11.72, p &#60;0.001, Cohen&#39;s d = -1.12), and significantly shorter in children with CVI than in children with OVI (mean difference = 325 msec; t = 2.44, p &#60;0.05, Cohen&#39;s d = -0.50). This confirms previous results in children with-, compared to children without visual impairments (Kooiker MJG et al., submitted).
<img alt="Figure 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5.&#160;Average FD in children with- and without visual impairments. Average FD values in ms (y-axis) per child, over age (x-axis). Values are shown separately for control children (open circles), children with OVI (black circles), and children with CVI (crosses). The black line represents the lower reference limit of FD in the control group. FD values below this line are regarded as deviant, i.e. short fixation duration. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
The parameter gaze fixation area (GFA) is sensitive to detect disturbances in oculomotor control, in particular nystagmus. GFA represents the size of the area of fixation in degrees, and is a measure for fixation accuracy (for calculations see previous studies13,23). A small area of fixation indicates high fixation accuracy. GFA depends on the size of the stimulus and the corresponding target area (i.e., a 6&#186; radius in the present example). Good repeatability of GFA has been shown in a group of typically developing children from 0-12 years13, 21, and in children with various types of visual impairments21. Figure 6 shows mean GFA in response to the cartoon stimulus over age, separately for control children, children with the oculomotor impairment nystagmus, and children with visual impairments but without nystagmus. GFA values are significantly larger, i.e. lower fixation accuracy, in children with- compared to children without visual impairments (mean difference = 1.34&#186;; t = -25.09, p &#60;0.001, Cohen&#39;s d = 2.37). In addition, children with nystagmus have lower fixation accuracy than children without nystagmus but with other types of visual impairment (mean difference = 0.71&#186;; t = 5.03, p &#60;0.001; Cohen&#39;s d = 1.04). This is consistent with previously published findings on GFA in subgroups of the present dataset20,24,25.
<img alt="Figure 6" src="/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig6.jpg" /> 
Figure 6.&#160;Average GFA in children with and without visual impairments. Average GFA values in degrees (y-axis) per child, over age (x-axis). Values are shown separately for control children (open circles), children with visual impairment and nystagmus (asterisk), and children with visual impairment without nystagmus (black diamond). The black line represents the upper reference limit of GFA in the control group. GFA values above this line are regarded as deviant, i.e. low fixation accuracy. <a href="https://jove.unicartagenaproxy.elogim.com/files/ftp_upload/54031/54031fig6large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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A Method to Quantify Visual Information Processing in Children Using Eye Tracking

A method is described to quantify the quality of visual information processing based on reflexive eye movements in response to specific visual modalities. Reaction times and fixation output parameters are used to characterize visual performance in children with and without visual impairments from 6 months of age.

Visual problems that occur early in life can have major impact on a child's development. Without verbal communication and only based on observational ...

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Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

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JoVE Journal

Behavior

17.3K Views.  Erasmus MC. A method is described to quantify the quality of visual information processing based on reflexive eye movements in response to specific visual modalities. Reaction times and fixation output parameters are used to characterize visual performance in children with and without visual impairments from 6 months of age.

Video: A Method to Quantify Visual Information Processing in Children Using Eye Tracking

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to adulthood. The method, which is identical for children, adolescents, and adults, is of short duration (&#60; 15 min), does not rely on sustained attention or place demands on memory (which would yield spurious age differences), and minimizes the impact of language development, making this method amenable to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. In this whole-mouth tasting method, subjects are asked to taste (without swallowing) pairs of solutions of different sucrose concentrations and to point to the solution they prefer. Each subsequent pair contains the participant&#39;s preceding preferred concentration and an adjacent stimulus concentration. The procedure continues until the subject chooses either a given concentration of sucrose when paired with both a higher and a lower concentration, or the highest or lowest concentration two consecutive times. Subjects are prevented from reaching response criteria on the basis of first or second position bias by the two-series design of the method, which counterbalances the order of solution presentation within each pair between the series (the weaker concentration is presented first in Series 1, second in Series 2). The geometric mean of the two sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 and 2 is an estimate of the participant&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose. Sucrose preference as determined with this laboratory-based measure has been shown to be associated with preference for sugars in foods and beverages and with taste receptor genotype, family history of alcoholism, and race/ethnicity, as well as depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations. The method has real-world relevance and has been applied to determine most preferred level of other tastes (e.g., salt), making it a valuable psychophysical tool.

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to ...

Eye-Tracking Control to Assess Cognitive Functions in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to progressive loss of motor and speech abilities. In addition, cognitive functions are impaired in a subset of patients. To evaluate these potential deficits in severely physically impaired ALS patients, eye-tracking is a promising means to conduct cognitive tests. The present article focuses on how eye movements, an indirect means of communication for physically disabled patients, can be utilized to allow for detailed neuropsychological assessment. The requirements, in terms of oculomotor parameters that have to be met for sufficient eye-tracking in ALS patients are presented. The properties of stimuli, including type of neuropsychological tests and style of presentation, best suited to successfully assess cognitive functioning, are also described. Furthermore, recommendations regarding procedural requirements are provided. Overall, this methodology provides a reliable, easy to administer and fast approach for assessing cognitive deficits in patients who are unable to speak or write such as patients with severe ALS. The only confounding factor might be deficits in voluntary eye movement control in a subset of ALS patients.

Cognitive deficits are common in about one third of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a neurological condition leading to progressive impairments in speech and movement abilities. To conduct cognitive tests in patients unable to speak or write a reliable and easy to administer eye-tracking paradigm was developed.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to ...

A Computational Method to Quantify Fly Circadian Activity

In most animals and plants, circadian clocks orchestrate behavioral and molecular processes and synchronize them to the daily light-dark cycle. Fundamental mechanisms that underlie this temporal control are widely studied using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism. In flies, the clock is typically studied by analyzing multiday locomotor recording. Such a recording shows a complex bimodal pattern with two peaks of activity: a morning peak that happens around dawn, and an evening peak that happens around dusk. These two peaks together form a waveform that is very different from sinusoidal oscillations observed in clock genes, suggesting that mechanisms in addition to the clock have profound effects in producing the observed patterns in behavioral data. Here we provide instructions on using a recently developed computational method that mathematically describes temporal patterns in fly activity. The method fits activity data with a model waveform that consists of four exponential terms and nine independent parameters that fully describe the shape and size of the morning and evening peaks of activity. The extracted parameters can help elucidate the kinetic mechanisms of substrates that underlie the commonly observed bimodal activity patterns in fly locomotor rhythms.

A method to quantify the main temporal features seen in fly circadian locomotor rhythms is presented. The quantification is achieved by fitting fly activity with a multi-parametric model waveform. The model parameters describe the shape and size of the morning and evening peaks of daily activity.

In most animals and plants, circadian clocks orchestrate behavioral and molecular processes and synchronize them to the daily light-dark cycle. ...

A Method to Study Adaptation to Left-Right Reversed Audition

An unusual sensory space is one of the effective tools to uncover the mechanism of adaptability of humans to a novel environment. Although most of the previous studies have used special spectacles with prisms to achieve unusual spaces in the visual domain, a methodology for studying the adaptation to unusual auditory spaces has yet to be fully established. This study proposes a new protocol to set-up, validate, and use a left-right reversed stereophonic system using only wearable devices, and to study the adaptation to left-right reversed audition with the help of neuroimaging. Although individual acoustic characteristics are not yet implemented, and slight spillover of unreversed sounds is relatively uncontrollable, the constructed apparatus shows high performance in a 360&#176; sound source localization coupled with hearing characteristics with little delay. Moreover, it looks like a mobile music player and enables a participant to focus on daily life without arousing curiosity or drawing attention of other individuals. Since the effects of adaptation were successfully detected at the perceptual, behavioral, and neural levels, it is concluded that this protocol provides a promising methodology for studying adaptation to left-right reversed audition, and is an effective tool for uncovering the adaptability of humans to a novel environments in the auditory domain.

The present study proposes a protocol to investigate the adaptation to left-right reversed audition achieved only by wearable devices, using neuroimaging, which can be an effective tool for uncovering the adaptability of humans to a novel environment in the auditory domain.

An unusual sensory space is one of the effective tools to uncover the mechanism of adaptability of humans to a novel environment. Although most of the ...

Eye Tracking During Visually Situated Language Comprehension: Flexibility and Limitations in Uncovering Visual Context Effects

The present work is a description and an assessment of a methodology designed to quantify different aspects of the interaction between language processing and the perception of the visual world. The recording of eye-gaze patterns has provided good evidence for the contribution of both the visual context and linguistic/world knowledge to language comprehension. Initial research assessed object-context effects to test&#160;theories of modularity in language processing. In the introduction, we describe how subsequent investigations have taken the role of the wider visual context in language processing as a research topic in its own right, asking questions such as how our visual perception of events and of speakers contributes to&#160;comprehension informed by&#160;comprehenders&#39; experience. Among the examined aspects of the visual context are actions, events, a speaker&#39;s gaze, and emotional facial expressions, as well as spatial object configurations. Following an overview of the eye-tracking method and its different applications, we list the key steps of the methodology in the protocol, illustrating how to successfully use it to study visually-situated language comprehension. A final section presents three sets of representative results and illustrates the benefits and limitations of eye tracking for investigating the interplay between the perception of the visual world and language comprehension.

The present article reviews an eye-tracking methodology for studies on language comprehension. To obtain reliable data, key steps of the protocol must be followed. Among these are the correct set-up of the eye tracker (e.g., ensuring good quality of the eye and head images) and accurate calibration.

The present work is a description and an assessment of a methodology designed to quantify different aspects of the interaction between language processing ...

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language

In a typical eye tracking study using the visual world paradigm, participants' eye movements to objects or pictures in the visual workspace are recorded via an eye tracker as the participant produces or comprehends a spoken language describing the concurrent visual world. This paradigm has high versatility, as it can be used in a wide range of populations, including those who cannot read and/or who cannot overtly give their behavioral responses, such as preliterate children, elderly adults, and patients. More importantly, the paradigm is extremely sensitive to fine grained manipulations of the speech signal, and it can be used to study the online processing of most topics in language comprehension at multiple levels, such as the fine grained acoustic phonetic features, the properties of words, and the linguistic structures. The protocol described in this article illustrates how a typical visual world eye tracking study is conducted, with an example showing how the online processing of some semantically complex statements can be explored with the visual world paradigm.

The visual world paradigm monitors participants' eye movements in the visual workspace as they are listening to or speaking a spoken language. This paradigm can be used to investigate the online processing of a wide range of psycholinguistic questions, including semantically complex statements, such as disjunctive statements.

In a typical eye tracking study using the visual world paradigm, participants' eye movements to objects or pictures in the visual workspace are recorded ...

An Electrophysiology Protocol to Measure Reward Anticipation and Processing in Children

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation and processing. Its purpose is to create a reward task that is appropriate for young children with and without autism while controlling reward properties between two conditions: social and nonsocial. The current protocol allows for comparisons of brain activity between social and nonsocial reward conditions while keeping the reward itself identical between conditions. Using this protocol, we found evidence that neurotypical children demonstrate enhanced anticipatory brain activity during the social condition. Furthermore, we found that neurotypical children anticipate social reward more robustly than children with autism diagnoses. As the task uses snacks as a reward, it is most appropriate for young children. However, the protocol may be adapted for use with adolescent or adult populations if snacks are replaced by monetary incentives. The protocol is designed to measure electrophysiological events (event-related potentials), but it may be customized for use with eye-tracking or fMRI.

This protocol is designed to measure reward anticipation and processing in young children with and without autism. Specifically, the protocol is designed to study the neural correlates of reward during social and nonsocial conditions while controlling for reward between conditions.

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation ...

Eye-tracking to Distinguish Comprehension-based and Oculomotor-based Regressive Eye Movements During Reading

Regressive eye movements are eye movements that move backwards through the text and comprise approximately 10-25% of eye movements during reading. As such, understanding the causes and mechanisms of regressions plays an important role in understanding eye movement behavior. Inhibition of return (IOR) is an oculomotor effect that results in increased latency to return attention to a previously attended target versus a target that was not previously attended. Thus, IOR may affect regressions. This paper describes how to design materials to distinguish between regressions caused by comprehension-related and oculomotor processes; the latter is subject to IOR. The method allows researchers to identify IOR and control the causes of regressions. While the method requires tightly controlled materials and large numbers of participants and materials, it allows researchers to distinguish and control the types of regressions that occur in their reading studies.

The method was designed to investigate the role of inhibition of return (IOR) in regressive eye movements during reading. The focus is on differentiating between regressions triggered as a result of comprehension difficulty versus those triggered from oculomotor error, including the role of IOR in the two types of regressions.

Regressive eye movements are eye movements that move backwards through the text and comprise approximately 10-25% of eye movements during reading. As ...

Using the Visual World Paradigm to Study Sentence Comprehension in Mandarin-Speaking Children with Autism

Sentence comprehension relies on the ability to rapidly integrate different types of linguistic and non-linguistic information. However, there is currently a paucity of research exploring how preschool children with autism understand sentences using different types of cues. The mechanisms underlying sentence comprehension remains largely unclear. The present study presents a protocol to examine the sentence comprehension abilities of preschool children with autism. More specifically, a visual world paradigm of eye-tracking is used to explore the moment-to-moment sentence comprehension in the children. The paradigm has multiple advantages. First, it is sensitive to the time course of sentence comprehension and thus can provide rich information about how sentence comprehension unfolds over time. Second, it requires minimal task and communication demands, so it is ideal for testing children with autism. To further minimize the computational burden of children, the present study measures eye movements that arise as automatic responses to linguistic input rather than measuring eye movements that accompany conscious responses to spoken instructions.

We present a protocol to examine the use of morphological cues during real-time sentence comprehension by children with autism.

Sentence comprehension relies on the ability to rapidly integrate different types of linguistic and non-linguistic information. However, there is ...

Gaze in Action: Head-mounted Eye Tracking of Children's Dynamic Visual Attention During Naturalistic Behavior

Young children's visual environments are dynamic, changing moment-by-moment as children physically and visually explore spaces and objects and interact with people around them. Head-mounted eye tracking offers a unique opportunity to capture children's dynamic egocentric views and how they allocate visual attention within those views. This protocol provides guiding principles and practical recommendations for researchers using head-mounted eye trackers in both laboratory and more naturalistic settings. Head-mounted eye tracking complements other experimental methods by enhancing opportunities for data collection in more ecologically valid contexts through increased portability and freedom of head and body movements compared to screen-based eye tracking. This protocol can also be integrated with other technologies, such as motion tracking and heart-rate monitoring, to provide a high-density multimodal dataset for examining natural behavior, learning, and development than previously possible. This paper illustrates the types of data generated from head-mounted eye tracking in a study designed to investigate visual attention in one natural context for toddlers: free-flowing toy play with a parent. Successful use of this protocol will allow researchers to collect data that can be used to answer questions not only about visual attention, but also about a broad range of other perceptual, cognitive, and social skills and their development.

Young children do not passively observe the world, but rather actively explore and engage with their environment. This protocol provides guiding principles and practical recommendations for using head-mounted eye trackers to record infants' and toddlers' dynamic visual environments and visual attention in the context of natural behavior.

Young children's visual environments are dynamic, changing moment-by-moment as children physically and visually explore spaces and objects and interact ...