This research was made possible through funding from the U.S. Office of Naval Research under Grant No. N000141210337, Deborah Nalchajian and Ronald Joslin.

1. Preparation of Experiments

<ol>
	<li>Select a proper microphone to build the RMP. Use a frequency range of the microphone within the frequency range of interest. 
	NOTE: In this experiment, pressure fluctuations between 100 and 10,000 Hz are of interest. The measurement frequency range of the selected microphone is from 100 to 10,000 Hz. The size of the microphone should be as small as possible, although there are no specific criteria for the size.</li>
	<li>Estimate the sensitivity and frequency response of the RMP system using the analytical method described in the appendix. Adjust the sensitivity and frequency response of the RMP by varying the dimensions of the tubes and structures.</li>
	<li>Use a Dremel to cut the 0.5 mm inner-diameter stainless steel tube into a 5.25 cm long piece.</li>
	<li>With scissors, cut the 1.25-mm inner-diameter soft tube into a 4.75 m long piece.</li>
	<li>Use a milling machine to cut a piece of Plexiglas into a cuboid. The length, width, and height of the cuboid should be 2.54 cm, 1.27 cm, and 1.27 cm, respectively.</li>
	<li>Drill holes with 0.81, 2, 2.56, and 0.76 mm diameters on the Plexiglas cradle, as shown in Figure 2.</li>
	<li>Use a needle drill to make the taper section of the Plexiglas cradle, as shown in Figure 2.</li>
	<li>Look up the microphone sensitivity in the manual provided by the manufacturer, or calibrate the microphone using the method introduced by Wong18.</li>
	<li>Seat the microphone into the Plexiglas cradle, as shown in Figure 2, and fix the microphone using epoxy.</li>
	<li>Connect the stainless-steel tube and the soft tube to the Plexiglas cradle and fix them with epoxy.</li>
	<li>Drill a hole with a 0.81 mm diameter perpendicularly to the model surface at the position of measurement.</li>
</ol>
2. Experiment Setup
<ol>
	<li>Flush mount the primary stainless steel tubes of the RMP sensors to the model surface and add epoxy to fix the stainless steel tubes to the opposite model surface, as shown in Figure 2.</li>
	<li>Surround the RMP with acoustic foam in order to prevent parasitic noise from contaminating the system.</li>
	<li>Route all electrical wiring out of the test section of the tunnel.</li>
	<li>Route the soft anechoic tube out of the test section of the tunnel.</li>
	<li>Connect the end of the soft anechoic tube to a pressure transducer in order to obtain measurements of the mean static pressure simultaneously with the unsteady pressure.</li>
	<li>Connect the RMP to a low-noise amplifier and data acquisition system.</li>
	<li>Set the gain factor of the amplifier to 10. Note that the value of the gain factor can be changed from case to case.</li>
</ol>
3. Calibration
<ol>
	<li>Select a reference microphone that is high quality and has a frequency-independent sensitivity.</li>
	<li>Connect the reference microphone to the input of an amplifier and connect the output of the amplifier to the data acquisition system.</li>
	<li>Set both the input gain and output gain of the amplifier to 10 dB. Note that the gain factor can be varied under different measurement conditions.</li>
	<li>Insert the reference microphone into a pistonphone, as shown in the supplementary figure.</li>
	<li>Turn on the pistonphone.</li>
	<li>Set the acquisition frequency to 4,000 Hz.</li>
	<li>Set the number of samples to 240,000.</li>
	<li>Acquire and save the voltage output from the reference microphone.</li>
	<li>Compute the calibration constant of the reference microphone. The calibration constant, Cref, is the ratio of the standard deviation of the pistonphone-produced sound pressure to the standard deviation of the voltage output of the reference microphone.</li>
	<li>Repeat the calibration process (steps 3.8 and 3.9) several times. Use the mean value, Cref, as the calibration constant.</li>
	<li>Place the reference microphone perpendicularly to the solid surface over which the pressure fluctuation is measured, as shown in Figure 1.</li>
	<li>Align the center of the reference microphone with the RMP tap. Use a distance between the reference microphone and the RMP tap of 1 mm.</li>
	<li>Place the loudspeaker in close proximity to the test model. Use a distance between the loudspeaker and the microphone of 2.5 m for these measurements.</li>
	<li>Connect the loudspeaker to a function generator and turn on the function generator.</li>
	<li>Use the &#34;white noise&#34; option of the function generator to provide the desired acoustic signal and set the root mean square voltage, Vrms, to 0.4 V.</li>
	<li>Adjust the volume of the loudspeaker to the minimum.</li>
	<li>Turn on the loudspeaker.</li>
	<li>Adjust the volume of the loudspeaker amplifier as high as possible without damaging the speaker. Note that most speakers have an indicator light to warn the user if the output amplitude is above the speaker range.</li>
	<li>Acquire and save time-series data from the voltage outputs of both the reference microphone and the RMP using a scanning frequency of 40,000 Hz for 60 sec.</li>
	<li>Compute the time-series values of the sound pressure fluctuation, which is generated by the loudspeaker and function generator and measured by the reference microphone. This is simply the product of the time-series voltage output from the reference microphone, <img alt="Equation 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq3.jpg" />, and its calibration constant, <img alt="Equation 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq4.jpg" />; <img alt="Equation 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq5.jpg" />. Note that the time-series sound pressure, <img alt="Equation 6" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq6.jpg" />, is also the pressure fluctuation at the tap of the RMP.</li>
	<li>Compute the time-series sound pressure fluctuation measured by the microphone in the RMP as the product of the time-series voltage output from the RMP, <img alt="Equation 7" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq7.jpg" />, and the microphone sensitivity, <img alt="Equation 8" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq8.jpg" />; <img alt="Equation 9" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq9.jpg" />. Note that the microphone sensitivity, <img alt="Equation 8" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq8.jpg" />, should be provided by the manufacturer.</li>
	<li>Compute the auto-spectral density, <img alt="Equation 10" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq10.jpg" />, of&#160; <img alt="Equation 11" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq11.jpg" />. Compute the auto-spectral density, <img alt="Equation 12" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq12.jpg" />, of <img alt="Equation 13" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq13.jpg" />. Compute the cross-spectral density, <img alt="Equation 14" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq14.jpg" />, between <img alt="Equation 13" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq13.jpg" /> and <img alt="Equation 11" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq11.jpg" />. The auto-spectral densities and cross-spectral density are defined by Bendat and Piersol19.</li>
	<li>Compute the transfer function as <img alt="Equation 15" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq15.jpg" />.</li>
	<li>Compute the coherence function as <img alt="Equation 16" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq16.jpg" />, where the asterisk represents the complex conjugate.</li>
	<li>Remove the reference microphone.</li>
	<li>Turn off the loudspeaker and function generator.</li>
	<li>Remove the loudspeaker.</li>
</ol>
4. Data Acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the wind tunnel.</li>
	<li>Record the time-series voltage output, <img alt="Equation 17" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq17.jpg" />, of the RMP with the data acquisition system. Use a scanning frequency of 40,000 Hz. Use a duration of the acquisition of 64 sec.</li>
	<li>Turn off the wind tunnel.</li>
</ol>
5. Data Processing
<ol>
	<li>Compute the sound pressure fluctuation, <img alt="Equation 18" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq18.jpg" />, measured by the microphone in the RMP as <img alt="Equation 19" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq19.jpg" />.</li>
	<li>Compute the auto-spectral density, <img alt="Equation 20" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq20.jpg" />, of the surface pressure fluctuation as <img alt="Equation 21" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq21.jpg" />, where <img alt="Equation 22" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq22.jpg" /> is the auto-spectral density of the sound pressure fluctuation measured by the microphone in the RMP <img alt="Equation 18" src="/files/ftp_upload/53627/53627eq18.jpg" /> .</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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NRL Report TR F 238.</a> National Aero-and Astronautical Research Inst. , (1965).</li><li>Perennes, S., Roger, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aerodynamic+noise+of+a+two-dimensional+wing+with+high-lift+devices.">Aerodynamic noise of a two-dimensional wing with high-lift devices.</a> , (1998).</li><li>Leclercq, D., Bohineust, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigation+and+modeling+of+the+wall+pressure+field+beneath+a+turbulent+boundary+layer+at+low+and+medium+frequencies.">Investigation and modeling of the wall pressure field beneath a turbulent boundary layer at low and medium frequencies.</a> J Sound Vibrat. 257 (3), 477-501 (2002).</li><li>Franzoni, L. P., Elliott, C. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The measurement of USP in wind tunnel experiments is needed for many applications related to aeroacoustics and flow-induced vibrations. Compared to existing methods, such as flush-mounted imbedded sensors, PSP, or vibrated membranes, the method described here allows for accurate measurements with a high sensitivity to large-magnitude fluctuation over a wide range of frequencies. More importantly, it also provides a method for USP measurements using a small sensing area that minimizes the spatial averaging effects describ...

Fluid flow over surfaces generally leads to unsteadiness and turbulence that result in unsteady surface pressure (USP). Flow-induced sound and vibration are often a direct result of this unsteadiness. The radiated sound generated by cooling fans, propellers, and wind turbines are dominated by sources related to USP1. Measurements of the spatial and temporal characteristics of USP in turbulent flows are generally required in order to predict the radiated sound.
The statistical characterization of USP is generally given in the form of auto-spectral density, two-point cross-spectral densities, and spatial correlation functions2, 3. The frequency response required can vary depending on the application. In many wind tunnel applications, a response of 10 kHz to 20 kHz is sufficient. The small scales of turbulent motion often require sensing areas and sensor spacing to be less than 1 mm.
Extensive experimental studies have been conducted in order to obtain turbulence-induced pressure fluctuations. A direct method uses flush-mounted embedded sensors. This method often employs large arrays of microphones, because each sensor can only measure the pressure fluctuation at one discrete point. Typical sensors utilized in this method are piezoelectric transducers, suggested by Gautschi4. Arrays of piezoelectric sensors can be expensive, and the frequency range of measurement is often less than 10 kHz.
Direct surface-mounted microphones are often used as inexpensive USP sensors5. Microphones have high sensitivity, which is a substantial benefit for low-speed flows. However, this also leads to the risk of sensor saturation when large amplitude fluctuations in pressure are present. This method is not suitable for surfaces with large curvatures, discontinuities, or geometries that are too thin to contain the entire sensor.
An indirect method for obtaining both spectral and spatial information is to use thin membranes flush-mounted to a surface6. The time- and space-dependent vibration motions are measured and then converted to surface pressure statistics using known mechanical properties of the membrane. This method requires careful design, implementation, and accurate calibration of the membrane&#39;s dynamic response. Additionally, the vibration measurement equipment, such as laser Doppler vibrometers, are expensive. Lastly, this method can only be applied to flat surfaces.
Pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) is another technique that can be used to measure the unsteady surface pressure. This technique requires the surfaces to be coated in a transparent polymer binder, which causes the molecules within to be excited to a higher energy state as they are illuminated by light of a specific wavelength. As the molecules undergo oxygen quenching, energy is released as light at a rate proportional to the oxygen partial pressure, resulting in luminescence that is inversely proportional to the surface pressure7. The major drawback to PSP methods is the relatively low sensitivity of the measurement when compared to microphones. This limits the application of PSP to relatively high-speed flows.
The present communication describes a method for USP that uses a remote microphone probe (RMP). This method was first described by Englund and Richards8. The concept uses a standard miniature microphone that is connected to the surface pressure tap with a hollow tube. The unsteady pressure at the model surface will travel into the tubing in the form of sound waves. The tubing acts as a &#34;wave-guide&#34; to allow the microphone, which is mounted perpendicularly to the tubing, to measure the sound waves. The waves then continue into another tube that is long enough to eliminate large-amplitude acoustic reflections.
Englund and Richards applied an analytical approach outlined by Bergh and Tijdeman9 to determine the dynamic response of the RMP. Perrenes and Roger10 utilized an RMP to measure surface pressure over a two-dimensional airfoil with high-lift devices. They developed a probe with a 0.5 mm diameter capillary tube at the surface that was connected to a 27-cm-long rigid tube that expanded from 0.7 mm to 2.5 mm via two separate step changes. Each step change caused a relatively large change in the acoustic impedance of the tube. Leclercq and Bohineust11 studied the wall pressure field beneath a turbulent boundary layer. They used a constant-diameter RMP, as suggested by Franzoni and Elliott12. However, the dynamic response was high enough only in a limited frequency range. Arguillat et al.13 designed an RMP to study the noise transmitted to the interior of a vehicle compartment. They tested various tubes to conduct the pressure fluctuation to the microphones. Yang et al.14 corrected for the tubing distortion by using a tubing transfer function approach that is similar to the method introduced in this report. Hoarau et al.15 studied the wall pressure trace downstream of a separated region. The RMPs that they designed had constant inside diameters, and the tubing was entirely non-rigid.
According to previous studies, the accuracy of surface pressure measurements obtained using RMPs is mainly dependent upon the determination of the frequency-dependent transfer function of the probe that relates the surface pressure to the microphone pressure. The following sections will describe an RMP geometry that is both simple and effective. Experimental and analytical methods will be introduced and validated in order to accurately determine the dynamic response of the RMP. The analytical model allows for an RMP to be optimized in the design stage for a potentially wide range of applications.
RMPs can be used to measure pressure fluctuations over a wide range of frequencies. The relatively high spatial resolution can offer detailed information on characteristics of the spatially-distributed unsteady pressure field16. As the probe is small, RMPs can be utilized to measure pressure fluctuations over complex geometries, such as large curvatures or limited spacing17. In addition, the tube connecting the surface tap and the microphone sensor can reduce the magnitude of the induced pressure fluctuation at the microphone. Thus, proper design of RMP sensor geometry and parameters yields a method for obtaining USP characteristics that are significantly less restrictive when compared to flush-mounting the microphone directly to the model surface.
Structure of the RMPThe general structure of the RMP is shown in Figure 1. The RMP consists of one tube leading from the model surface to an expansion section and a second tube extending from the expansion section to a &#34;cradle.&#34; A third tube is then connected to act as an anechoic termination. The cradle is a machined plastic component used for housing the microphone and the tube connections. The details of the RMP structure can be adjusted for various experimental conditions. The purpose of the second, larger-diameter tube is to allow the relatively bulky microphone and cradle to be placed further from the point of the USP measurement without significantly reducing the measurement sensitivity. This second tube can be eliminated if it is not necessary, and the expansion section can be built in the cradle. The anechoic termination was made of soft plastic that was approximately 2 to 3 m in length.
For this demonstration, the design of the RMP was optimized for the measurement of surface pressure fluctuations under a turbulent boundary layer without a streamwise pressure gradient, as shown in Figure 2. The second tube was eliminated. The effects of the two different lengths of the first tube were observed. The first tube was constructed from stainless steel with an inner diameter of 0.5 mm and an outer diameter of 0.81 mm. The lengths of the first tube were 5.35 and 10.40 cm, respectively. The inner diameter of the inlet of the expansion section, which was incorporated into the cradle, was 0.5 mm, and the inner diameter of the exit was 1.25 mm, which was identical to the inner diameter of the dissipation termination. The angle of the expansion section was 7&#176;. There was a hole in the cradle with a 1.25 mm diameter in order to smoothly connect the expansion section with the anechoic termination. The sensing area was connected to the 1.25 mm hole through a perpendicular 0.75 mm hole.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1651">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Microphone</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">ACO Pacific (http://www.acopacific.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">7016</td>
			<td style="width:739px;">Used to measure the sound pressure and calibrate the RMP as a reference.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Microphone</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">Knowles (http://www.knowles.com/eng)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">FG-23629-C36</td>
			<td>Used to measure the pressure fluctuation as a part of the RMP.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Microbore Tubing</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">Saint-gobain (http://www.biopharm.saint-gobain.com/en/index.asp)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">Tygon ND 100-80</td>
			<td>Used to dissipate the sound waves as a dissipation termination.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Hypodermic Tubing</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">MicroGroup (http://www.microgroup.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">304H21RW</td>
			<td>Used to connect the surface tap and allow the surface pressure fluctuation to convect to the microphone in the RMP in the form of sound.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Hypodermic Tubing</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">MicroGroup (http://www.microgroup.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">304H14H</td>
			<td>Used to reduce the dissipative effect and allow the surface pressure fluctuation to convect to the microphone in the RMP in the form of sound.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">plexiglass</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">Plaskolite (http://www.plaskolite.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">1X76204A</td>
			<td>Used to make cradles which can connect the tubing and the microphone for the RMP.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Data acquisition chassis</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">National Instruments (http://www.ni.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">PXI-1006</td>
			<td>For data acquisition.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Data acquisition channel</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">National Instruments (http://www.ni.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">PXI-4472</td>
			<td>For data acquisiton.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Function generator</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">thinkSRS (http://www.thinksrs.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">DS360</td>
			<td>To generate white noise signal.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Pistonphone</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">B&#38;K (http://www.bksv.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">4228</td>
			<td>To generate sine waves with constant frequency which will be used to calibrate the reference microphone.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">Loudspeaker</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">Mackie (http://www.mackie.com/index.html)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;">HD1531</td>
			<td>Used to convert the electrical white noise signal into sound. It is the sound source for calibrating the RMP.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">MatLab</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">Mathworks (http://www.mathworks.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;"></td>
			<td>Used to process experimental data.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:263px;">LabVIEW</td>
			<td style="width:513px;">National Instruments (http://www.ni.com/)</td>
			<td style="width:137px;"></td>
			<td>Used control the hardware for data acquisition and record the data.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the measurement of unsteady surface pressure using a remote microphone probe

Microphones are widely applied to measure pressure fluctuations at the walls of solid bodies immersed in turbulent flows. Turbulent motions with various characteristic length scales can result in pressure fluctuations over a wide frequency range. This property of turbulence requires sensing devices to have sufficient sensitivity over a wide range of frequencies. Furthermore, the small characteristic length scales of turbulent structures require small sensing areas and the ability to place the sensors in very close proximity to each other. The complex geometries of the solid bodies, often including large surface curvatures or discontinuities, require the probe to have the ability to be set up in very limited spaces. The development of a remote microphone probe, which is inexpensive, consistent, and repeatable, is described in the present communication. It allows for the measurement of pressure fluctuations with high spatial resolution and dynamic response over a wide range of frequencies. The probe is small enough to be placed within the interior of typical wind tunnel models. The remote microphone probe includes a small, rigid, and hollow tube that penetrates the model surface to form the sensing area. This tube is connected to a standard microphone, at some distance away from the surface, using a "T" junction. An experimental method is introduced to determine the dynamic response of the remote microphone probe. In addition, an analytical method for determining the dynamic response is described. The analytical method can be applied in the design stage to determine the dimensions and properties of the RMP components.

Calibration results from two representative RMP designs are shown in this section. The first one used a 5.35 cm primary tube, and the second one used a 10.4 cm primary tube. The dissipative terminations are 4.75 m long for both RMPs.
The coherence between the pressure fluctuations measured by the microphone in the RMP and by the reference microphone is shown in Figure 3. The data show a near-unity coherence valu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Measurement of Unsteady Surface Pressure Using a Remote Microphone Probe at JoVE.com

The Measurement of Unsteady Surface Pressure Using a Remote Microphone Probe

Here, we present a protocol to measure, with high spatial resolution, the unsteady surface pressure in turbulent flows. This method demonstrates the construction of a remote microphone probe (RMP) and the determination of its frequency-dependent, complex transfer function. An analytical determination of the dynamic response is presented and validated.

Microphones are widely applied to measure pressure fluctuations at the walls of solid bodies immersed in turbulent flows. Turbulent motions with various ...

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6.9K Views.  University of Notre Dame. Here, we present a protocol to measure, with high spatial resolution, the unsteady surface pressure in turbulent flows. This method demonstrates the construction of a remote microphone probe (RMP) and the determination of its frequency-dependent, complex transfer function. An analytical determination of the dynamic response is presented and validated.

Video: The Measurement of Unsteady Surface Pressure Using a Remote Microphone Probe

Synthesis and Microdiffraction at Extreme Pressures and Temperatures

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary interiors, design materials with novel properties, understand the mechanical behavior of materials exposed to very high stresses as in explosions or impacts. Synthesis and structural analysis of materials at extreme conditions of pressure and temperature entails remarkable technical challenges. In the laser heated diamond anvil cell (LH-DAC), very high pressure is generated between the tips of two opposing diamond anvils forced against each other; focused infrared laser beams, shined through the diamonds, allow to reach very high temperatures on samples absorbing the laser radiation. When the LH-DAC is installed in a synchrotron beamline that provides extremely brilliant x-ray radiation, the structure of materials under extreme conditions can be probed in situ. LH-DAC samples, although very small, can show highly variable grain size, phase and chemical composition. In order to obtain the high resolution structural analysis and the most comprehensive characterization of a sample, we collect diffraction data in 2D grids and combine powder, single crystal and multigrain diffraction techniques. Representative results obtained in the synthesis of a new iron oxide, Fe4O5 1 will be shown.

The laser heated diamond anvil cell combined with synchrotron micro-diffraction techniques allows researchers to explore the nature and properties of new phases of matter at extreme pressure and temperature (PT) conditions. Heterogeneous samples can be characterized in situ under high pressure by 2D mapping and combined powder, single-crystal and multigrain diffraction approaches.

High pressure compounds and polymorphs are investigated for a broad range of purposes such as determine structures and processes of deep planetary ...

Scanning-probe Single-electron Capacitance Spectroscopy

The integration of low-temperature scanning-probe techniques and single-electron capacitance spectroscopy represents a powerful tool to study the electronic quantum structure of small systems - including individual atomic dopants in semiconductors. Here we present a capacitance-based method, known as Subsurface Charge Accumulation (SCA) imaging, which is capable of resolving single-electron charging while achieving sufficient spatial resolution to image individual atomic dopants. The use of a capacitance technique enables observation of subsurface features, such as dopants buried many nanometers beneath the surface of a semiconductor material1,2,3. In principle, this technique can be applied to any system to resolve electron motion below an insulating surface.
As in other electric-field-sensitive scanned-probe techniques4, the lateral spatial resolution of the measurement depends in part on the radius of curvature of the probe tip. Using tips with a small radius of curvature can enable spatial resolution of a few tens of nanometers. This fine spatial resolution allows investigations of small numbers (down to one) of subsurface dopants1,2. The charge resolution depends greatly on the sensitivity of the charge detection circuitry; using high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) in such circuits at cryogenic temperatures enables a sensitivity of approximately 0.01 electrons/Hz&frac12; at 0.3 K 5.

Scanning-probe single-electron capacitance spectroscopy facilitates the study of single-electron motion in localized subsurface regions. A sensitive charge-detection circuit is incorporated into a cryogenic scanning probe microscope to investigate small systems of dopant atoms beneath the surface of semiconductor samples.

The integration of low-temperature scanning-probe techniques and single-electron capacitance spectroscopy represents a powerful tool to study the ...

Blast Quantification Using Hopkinson Pressure Bars

Near-field blast load measurement presents an issue to many sensor types as they must endure very aggressive environments and be able to measure pressures up to many hundreds of megapascals. In this respect the simplicity of the Hopkinson pressure bar has a major advantage in that while the measurement end of the Hopkinson bar can endure and be exposed to harsh conditions, the strain gauge mounted to the bar can be affixed some distance away. This allows protective housings to be utilized which protect the strain gauge but do not interfere with the measurement acquisition. The use of an array of pressure bars allows the pressure-time histories at discrete known points to be measured. This article also describes the interpolation routine used to derive pressure-time histories at un-instrumented locations on the plane of interest. Currently the technique has been used to measure loading from high explosives in free air and buried shallowly in various soils.

This protocol details the use of Hopkinson pressure bars to measure reflected blast loading from near-field explosive events. It is capable of interpolating a pressure-time history at any point on a reflective boundary and as such can be used to fully characterize the spatial and temporal variations in loading produced.

Near-field blast load measurement presents an issue to many sensor types as they must endure very aggressive environments and be able to measure pressures ...

Optical Trap Loading of Dielectric Microparticles In Air

We demonstrate a method to trap a selected dielectric microparticle in air using radiation pressure from a single-beam gradient optical trap. Randomly scattered dielectric microparticles adhered to a glass substrate are momentarily detached using ultrasonic vibrations generated by a piezoelectric transducer (PZT). Then, the optical beam focused on a selected particle lifts it up to the optical trap while the vibrationally excited microparticles fall back to the substrate. A particle may be trapped at the nominal focus of the trapping beam or at a position above the focus (referred to here as the levitation position) where gravity provides the restoring force. After the measurement, the trapped particle can be placed at a desired position on the substrate in a controlled manner. 
In this protocol, an experimental procedure for selective optical trap loading in air is outlined. First, the experimental setup is briefly introduced. Second, the design and fabrication of a PZT holder and a sample enclosure are illustrated in detail. The optical trap loading of a selected microparticle is then demonstrated with step-by-step instructions including sample preparation, launching into the trap, and use of electrostatic force to excite particle motion in the trap and measure charge. Finally, we present recorded particle trajectories of Brownian and ballistic motions of a trapped microparticle in air. These trajectories can be used to measure stiffness or to verify optical alignment through time domain and frequency domain analysis. Selective trap loading enables optical tweezers to track a particle and its changes over repeated trap loadings in a reversible manner, thereby enabling studies of particle-surface interaction.

A protocol for launching and stably trapping selected dielectric microparticles in air is presented.

We demonstrate a method to trap a selected dielectric microparticle in air using radiation pressure from a single-beam gradient optical trap. Randomly ...

Standardized Method for Measuring Collection Efficiency from Wipe-sampling of Trace Explosives

One of the limiting steps to detecting traces of explosives at screening venues is effective collection of the sample. Wipe-sampling is the most common procedure for collecting traces of explosives, and standardized measurements of collection efficiency are needed to evaluate and optimize sampling protocols. The approach described here is designed to provide this measurement infrastructure, and controls most of the factors known to be relevant to wipe-sampling. Three critical factors (the applied force, travel distance, and travel speed) are controlled using an automated device. Test surfaces are chosen based on similarity to the screening environment, and the wipes can be made from any material considered for use in wipe-sampling. Particle samples of the explosive 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) are applied in a fixed location on the surface using a dry-transfer technique. The particle samples, recently developed to simulate residues made after handling explosives, are produced by inkjet printing of RDX solutions onto polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) substrates. Collection efficiency is measured by extracting collected explosive from the wipe, and then related to critical sampling factors and the selection of wipe material and test surface. These measurements are meant to guide the development of sampling protocols at screening venues, where speed and throughput are primary considerations.

Optimized sampling protocols and the development of new wipe materials can be facilitated by standardized measurements of collection efficiency from wipe-sampling. Our approach for sampling trace explosives uses an automated device to control speed, force, and distance during wipe-sampling followed by extraction of collected explosives.

One of the limiting steps to detecting traces of explosives at screening venues is effective collection of the sample. Wipe-sampling is the most common ...

Generation of Size-controlled Poly (ethylene Glycol) Diacrylate Droplets via Semi-3-Dimensional Flow Focusing Microfluidic Devices

Uniform and size-controllable poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) droplets could be produced via the flow focusing process in a microfluidic device. This paper proposes a semi-three-dimensional (semi-3D) flow-focusing microfluidic chip for droplet formation. The polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) chip was fabricated using the multi-layer soft lithography method. Hexadecane containing surfactant was used as the continuous phase, and PEGDA with the ultraviolet (UV) photo-initiator was the dispersed phase. Surfactants allowed the local surface tension to drop and formed a more cusped tip which promoted breaking into tiny micro-droplets. As the pressure of dispersed phase was constant, the size of droplets became smaller with increasing continuous phase pressure before dispersed phase flow was broken off. As a result, droplets with size variation from 1 &#181;m to 80 &#181;m in diameter could be selectively achieved by changing the pressure ratio in two inlet channels, and the average coefficient of variation was estimated to be below 7%. Furthermore, droplets could turn into micro-beads by UV exposure for photo-polymerization. Conjugating biomolecules on such micro-beads surface have many potential applications in the fields of biology and chemistry.

Generation of Size-controlled Poly ethylene Glycol Diacrylate Droplets via Semi-3-Dimensional Flow Focusing Microfluidic Devices

Here, we present a protocol to illustrate the fabrication processes and verifying experiments of a semi-three-dimensional (semi-3D) flow-focusing microfluidic chip for droplet formation.

Uniform and size-controllable poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) droplets could be produced via the flow focusing process in a microfluidic device. ...

Safe Experimentation in Optical Levitation of Charged Droplets Using Remote Labs

The work presents an experiment that allows the study of many fundamental physical processes, such as photon pressure, diffraction of light or the motion of charged particles in electrical fields. In this experiment, a focused laser beam pointing upwards levitate liquid droplets. The droplets are levitated by the photon pressure of the focused laser beam which balances the gravitational force. The diffraction pattern created when illuminated with laser light can help measure the size of a trapped droplet. The charge of the trapped droplet can be determined by studying its motion when a vertically directed electrical field is applied. There are several reasons motivating this experiment to be remotely controlled. The investments required for the setup exceeds the amount normally available in undergraduate teaching laboratories. The experiment requires a laser of Class 4, which is harmful to both skin and eyes and the experiment uses voltages that are harmful.

Optical levitation is a method for levitating micrometer-sized dielectric objects using laser light. Utilizing computers and automation systems, an experiment on optical levitation can be controlled remotely. Here, we present a remotely controlled optical levitation system that is used both for educational and research purposes.

The work presents an experiment that allows the study of many fundamental physical processes, such as photon pressure, diffraction of light or the motion ...

Fabrication of Compressed Hosiery and Measurement of its Pressure Characteristic Exerted on the Lower Limbs

This article reports the pressure characteristic measurement of compressed hosiery via direct and indirect methods. In the direct method, an interface sensor is used to measure the pressure value exerted on the lower limbs. In the indirect method, the necessary parameters mentioned by the cone and cylinder model are tested to calculate the pressure value. The necessary parameters involve course density, wales density, circumference, length, thickness, tension, and deformation of the compressed hosiery. Compared with the results of the direct method, the cone model in the indirect method is more suitable for calculating the pressure value because the cone model considers the change in radius of the lower limb from the knee to the ankle. Based on this measurement, the relationship among fabrication, structure, and pressure is further investigated in this study. We find that graduation is the main influence that can change the wales density. On the other hand, elastic motors directly affect the course density and the circumference of the stockings. Our reported work provides the fabrication-structure-pressure relationship and a design guide for gradually compressed hosiery.

This article reports fabrication, structure and pressure measurement of compressed hosiery by employing direct and indirect methods.

This article reports the pressure characteristic measurement of compressed hosiery via direct and indirect methods. In the direct method, an interface ...

In Situ Surface Temperature Measurement in a Conveyor Belt Furnace via Inline Infrared Thermography

Measuring the surface temperature of objects that are processed in conveyor belt furnaces is an important tool in process control and quality assurance. Currently, the surface temperature of objects processed in conveyor belt furnaces is typically measured via thermocouples. However, infrared (IR) thermography presents multiple advantages compared to thermocouple measurements, as it is a contactless, real-time, and spatially resolved method. Here, as a representative proof-of-concept example, an inline thermography system is successfully installed into an IR lamp powered solar firing furnace, which is used for the contact firing process of industrial Si solar cells. This protocol describes how to install an IR camera into a conveyor belt furnace, conduct a customer correction of a factory calibrated IR camera, and perform the evaluation of spatial surface temperature distribution on a target object.

This protocol describes how to install an infrared camera into a conveyor belt furnace, conduct a customer correction of a factory calibrated IR camera, and evaluate the spatial surface temperature distribution of an object of interest. The example objects are industrial silicon solar cells.

Measuring the surface temperature of objects that are processed in conveyor belt furnaces is an important tool in process control and quality assurance. ...

Measuring Sub-23 Nanometer Real Driving Particle Number Emissions Using the Portable DownToTen Sampling System

The current particle size threshold of the European Particle Number (PN) emission standards is 23 nm. This threshold could change because future combustion engine vehicle technology may emit large amounts of sub-23 nm particles. The Horizon 2020 funded project DownToTen (DTT) developed a sampling and measurement method to characterize particle emissions in this currently unregulated size range. A PN measurement system was developed based on an extensive review of the literature and laboratory experiments testing a variety of PN measurement and sampling approaches. The measurement system developed is characterized by high particle penetration and versatility, which enables the assessment of primary particles, delayed primary particles, and secondary aerosols, starting from a few nanometers in diameter. This paper provides instruction on how to install and operate this Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS) for Real Drive Emissions (RDE) measurements and assess particle number emissions below the current legislative limit of 23 nm.

Presented here is the DownToTen (DTT) portable emission measurement system to assess real driving automotive emissions of sub-23 nm particles.