Os autores agradecem a Anna Labernadie, Guillaume Charrière e Patrick Delobelle pela sua contribuição inicial para este trabalho e Matthieu Sanchez e Françoise Viala por sua ajuda com filmagem e edição de vídeo. Este trabalho tem sido apoiado pela L'Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR14-CE11-0020-02), la de derramar Fondation de la Recherche Médicale (FRM DEQ2016 0334894), INSERM plano de câncer, câncer de Toulouse Fondation e humano Frontier Science Program (RGP0035/2016).

1. preparação de grades Formvar-revestido
<ol><li>Limpar grelhas de microscopia eletrônica com acetona pura e secá-las com papel de filtro. Em seguida, limpe uma lâmina de microscópio com etanol puro, limpe com um papel de lente e retire a poeira com um ventilador.</li>
	<li>Coloque uma lâmina de vidro limpa de etanol verticalmente no funil de um dispositivo de fundição de filme contendo uma solução de Formvar na parte inferior. Cubra a parte superior do funil.</li>
	<li>Bomba de 100 mL de solução de Formvar (0,5% de dicloreto de etileno) com o bulbo atomizador até o nível atingir dois terços do slide.</li>
	<li>Manter a corrediça na solução por 1 min.</li>
	<li>Abra a válvula do dispositivo para drenar a solução de Formvar em um fluxo constante. Uma taxa de fluxo de 10 a 15 mL/s irá produzir um filme de Formvar de 30-80 nm. A espessura do filme é determinada pela concentração da solução de Formvar e pela taxa de drenagem. Nota: A taxa de drenagem pode ser controlada por abrindo lentamente a válvula de ventilação a pressão através da válvula de ar-para fora. A drenagem mais rápida, mais grosso o filme. Na prática, porque é difícil de prever a espessura da película da taxa de fluxo de Formvar, preparamos vários lotes de Formvar filmes e controlar sua espessura por AFM (consulte a etapa 2).</li>
	<li>Remover o slide da câmara e secar delicadamente o papel de filtro para remover qualquer líquido Formvar.</li>
	<li>Corte um retângulo de 20 x 50 mm do filme Formvar com uma lâmina de barbear.</li>
	<li>Encha um copo com água destilada limpa e lentamente mergulhar o slide verticalmente na água a flutuar fora do filme: o filme deve flutuar na superfície da água.</li>
	<li>Grades de acetona-limpo secos lugar no filme, brilhante face para cima.</li>
	<li>Coloque algumas das grades de uma lamela de vidro redonda (Ø 12 mm). Esta lamela servirá para medir a espessura da película (consulte a etapa 2).</li>
	<li>Cobri uma lâmina de microscópio com um adesivo branco redimensionado para ajustá-lo. Mergulhe o slide verticalmente na fronteira do filme Formvar flutuante até o filme inteiro adere ao slide. Remover o excesso de água do slide com papel de filtro e deixe secar à temperatura ambiente durante a noite.</li>
</ol>2. medição de espessura de filme
<ol><li>Corte o Formvar próximo a lamela com uma pinça para desconectá-lo do slide.</li>
	<li>Marque a localização da grade sob a lamela com uma caneta.</li>
	<li>Corte o Formvar em torno da grade marcada para desconectá-lo da lamela. Portanto, haverá um buraco na folha Formvar restante, que permitirá medir a espessura da película. Cobrir a lamela com PBS e coloque-a sobre uma lâmina de vidro no microscópio.</li>
	<li>Monte um cantilever de nitreto de silício sobre o bloco de vidro AFM, certificando-se que a listra dourada não é coberta pela ponta da primavera. Nota: A sensibilidade e a constante de mola do cantilever devem ter anteriormente foi calibrados em PBS.</li>
	<li>Montar o bloco de vidro para o módulo AFM e em seguida, coloque o módulo no microscópio.</li>
	<li>Colocar a lamela Formvar revestido na câmara de observação e cubra-o com 500 µ l de PBS.</li>
	<li>Digitalize a borda do buraco na folha de Formvar usando o AFM em modo de contato e um ponto de ajuste de força nN 0,5.</li>
	<li>Usar a superfície da lamela de vidro como a referência para medições de altura e avaliar a espessura de Formvar como a altura da secção transversal (executar pelo menos 10 medidas por lote de Formvar).</li>
</ol>3. semeadura de células nas grades
<ol><li>Sob uma capa estéril, colocar uma faixa (12 x 3 mm) de fita adesiva dupla-face sobre uma lamela.</li>
	<li>Cortar uma grade Formvar revestido com uma pinça e colocá-lo de cabeça para baixo sobre a fita adesiva (apenas o aro da grade deve ser anexado à fita). O filme de Formvar precisa encarar a lamela.</li>
	<li>Colocar este dispositivo em uma cultura bem.</li>
	<li>Coloque uma gota de 10 µ l de RPMI sem FCS contendo 104 macrófagos diferenciados de monócitos humanos16. Nota: Certifique-se de não tocar na grelha com a ponta da pipeta para não danificar o revestimento de Formvar.</li>
	<li>Incube durante 30 min (37 ° C, 5% CO2) para permitir que células aderem.</li>
	<li>Encha o poço com 2 mL de RPMI contendo 10% FCS.</li>
	<li>Incube o dispositivo para 2 h a 37 ° C e 5% CO2 deixar células aderem antes observação AFM.</li>
</ol>4. topografia medições das deformações induzida por Podosome
<ol><li>Cole duas tiras de fita adesiva duplicou face um fundo de vidro, placa de Petri. Nota: A distância entre as duas tiras deve ser menor que o diâmetro da grade.</li>
	<li>Cuidadosamente retire a grade chapeada com macrófagos da fita adesiva.</li>
	<li>Vire a grelha invertida para que as células de frente para o vidro e enfiar a grade entre as duas tiras adesivas.</li>
	<li>Fix a grade com duas novas tiras de adesivo duplicou face: grade assim vai ser imprensada entre duas tiras de adesivo, deixando a área central da grade acessível à ponta AFM. Nota: Certifique-se que a grade está bem fixo e não torcido; caso contrário o cantilever AFM não poderá se aproximar da superfície Formvar.</li>
	<li>Encha o prato de Petri com 2 mL de meio de cultura previamente aquecida a 37 ° C (RPMI com 10% de FCS) suplementado com 10 mM HEPES (pH 7,4).</li>
	<li>Coloque o prato de cultura em um aquecedor de prato de 37 ° C.</li>
	<li>Instale o aquecedor de prato no palco AFM.</li>
	<li>Deixe o sistema estabilizar a 37 ° C.</li>
	<li>No modo de contato com uma força de 0,5 nN, fazer uma primeira imagem global para localizar podosomes e depois digitalizar a topografia de Formvar a 3 Hz com um pixel aproximadamente 20 nm-grande. Nota: Evite varredura perto das bordas da grade.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Discher, D. E., Janmey, P., Wang, Y. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+Cells+Feel+and+Respond+to+the+Stiffness+of+Their+Substrate.">Tissue Cells Feel and Respond to the Stiffness of Their Substrate.</a> Science. 310, 1139-1143 (2005).</li><li>Paszek, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tensional+Homeostasis+and+the+Malignant+Phenotype.">Tensional Homeostasis and the Malignant Phenotype.</a> Cancer Cell. 8, 241-254 (2005).</li><li>Engler, A. J., Sen, S., Sweeney, H. L., Discher, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Matrix+Elasticity+Directs+Stem+Cell+Lineage+Specification.">Matrix Elasticity Directs Stem Cell Lineage Specification.</a> Cell. 126, 677-689 (2006).</li><li>Gilbert, P. M., Weaver, V. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cellular+Adaptation+to+Biomechanical+Stress+across+Length+Scales+in+Tissue+Homeostasis+and+Disease.">Cellular Adaptation to Biomechanical Stress across Length Scales in Tissue Homeostasis and Disease.</a> Seminars in Cell &amp; Developmental Biology. 67, 141-152 (2017).</li><li>Vining, K. H., Mooney, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+Forces+Direct+Stem+Cell+Behaviour+in+Development+and+Regeneration.">Mechanical Forces Direct Stem Cell Behaviour in Development and Regeneration.</a> Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. , (2017).</li><li>Roca-Cusachs, P., Conte, V., Trepat, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantifying+Forces+in+Cell+Biology.">Quantifying Forces in Cell Biology.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 19, 742-751 (2017).</li><li>Labernadie, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protrusion+Force+Microscopy+Reveals+Oscillatory+Force+Generation+and+Mechanosensing+Activity+of+Human+Macrophage+Podosomes.">Protrusion Force Microscopy Reveals Oscillatory Force Generation and Mechanosensing Activity of Human Macrophage Podosomes.</a> Nature Communications. 5, 5343 (2014).</li><li>Proag, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Working+Together:+Spatial+Synchrony+in+the+Force+and+Actin+Dynamics+of+Podosome+First+Neighbors.">Working Together: Spatial Synchrony in the Force and Actin Dynamics of Podosome First Neighbors.</a> ACS Nano. 9, 3800-3813 (2015).</li><li>Proag, A., Bouissou, A., Vieu, C., Maridonneau-Parini, I., Poincloux, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+Force+and+Spatial+Dynamics+of+Macrophage+Podosomes+by+Multi-Particle+Tracking.">Evaluation of the Force and Spatial Dynamics of Macrophage Podosomes by Multi-Particle Tracking.</a> Methods. 94, 75-84 (2016).</li><li>Cougoule, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-Dimensional+Migration+of+Macrophages+Requires+Hck+for+Podosome+Organization+and+Extracellular+Matrix+Proteolysis.">Three-Dimensional Migration of Macrophages Requires Hck for Podosome Organization and Extracellular Matrix Proteolysis.</a> Blood. 115, 1444-1452 (2010).</li><li>Cougoule, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blood+Leukocytes+and+Macrophages+of+Various+Phenotypes+Have+Distinct+Abilities+to+Form+Podosomes+and+to+Migrate+in+3d+Environments.">Blood Leukocytes and Macrophages of Various Phenotypes Have Distinct Abilities to Form Podosomes and to Migrate in 3d Environments.</a> European Journal of Cell Biology. 91, 938-949 (2012).</li><li>Guiet, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macrophage+Mesenchymal+Migration+Requires+Podosome+Stabilization+by+Filamin+A.">Macrophage Mesenchymal Migration Requires Podosome Stabilization by Filamin A.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 287, 13051-13062 (2012).</li><li>Maridonneau-Parini, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+Macrophage+3d+Migration:+A+Therapeutic+Challenge+to+Limit+Tissue+Infiltration.">Control of Macrophage 3d Migration: A Therapeutic Challenge to Limit Tissue Infiltration.</a> Immunology Review. 262, 216-231 (2014).</li><li>Park, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tyrosine+Phosphorylation+of+Wiskott-Aldrich+Syndrome+Protein+(Wasp)+by+Hck+Regulates+Macrophage+Function.">Tyrosine Phosphorylation of Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome Protein (Wasp) by Hck Regulates Macrophage Function.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 289, 7897-7906 (2014).</li><li>Van Goethem, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macrophage+Podosomes+Go+3d.">Macrophage Podosomes Go 3d.</a> European Journal of Cell Biology. 90, 224-236 (2011).</li><li>Van Goethem, E., Poincloux, R., Gauffre, F., Maridonneau-Parini, I., Le Cabec, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Matrix+Architecture+Dictates+Three-Dimensional+Migration+Modes+of+Human+Macrophages:+Differential+Involvement+of+Proteases+and+Podosome-Like+Structures.">Matrix Architecture Dictates Three-Dimensional Migration Modes of Human Macrophages: Differential Involvement of Proteases and Podosome-Like Structures.</a> Journal of Immunology. 184, 1049-1061 (2010).</li><li>Verollet, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hiv-1+Reprograms+the+Migration+of+Macrophages.">Hiv-1 Reprograms the Migration of Macrophages.</a> Blood. 125, 1611-1622 (2015).</li><li>Bouissou, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Podosome+Force+Generation+Machinery:+A+Local+Balance+between+Protrusion+at+the+Core+and+Traction+at+the+Ring.">Podosome Force Generation Machinery: A Local Balance between Protrusion at the Core and Traction at the Ring.</a> ACS Nano. 11, 4028-4040 (2017).</li><li>Lizarraga, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diaphanous-Related+Formins+Are+Required+for+Invadopodia+Formation+and+Invasion+of+Breast+Tumor+Cells.">Diaphanous-Related Formins Are Required for Invadopodia Formation and Invasion of Breast Tumor Cells.</a> Cancer Research. 69, 2792-2800 (2009).</li><li>Carman, C. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcellular+Diapedesis+Is+Initiated+by+Invasive+Podosomes.">Transcellular Diapedesis Is Initiated by Invasive Podosomes.</a> Immunity. 26, 784-797 (2007).</li><li>Sage, P. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antigen+Recognition+Is+Facilitated+by+Invadosome-Like+Protrusions+Formed+by+Memory/Effector+T+Cells.">Antigen Recognition Is Facilitated by Invadosome-Like Protrusions Formed by Memory/Effector T Cells.</a> Journal of Immunology. 188, 3686-3699 (2012).</li><li>Sens, K. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+Invasive+Podosome-Like+Structure+Promotes+Fusion+Pore+Formation+During+Myoblast+Fusion.">An Invasive Podosome-Like Structure Promotes Fusion Pore Formation During Myoblast Fusion.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 191, 1013-1027 (2010).</li><li>Takito, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Transient+Appearance+of+Zipper-Like+Actin+Superstructures+During+the+Fusion+of+Osteoclasts.">The Transient Appearance of Zipper-Like Actin Superstructures During the Fusion of Osteoclasts.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 125, 662-672 (2012).</li><li>Shilagardi, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin-Propelled+Invasive+Membrane+Protrusions+Promote+Fusogenic+Protein+Engagement+During+Cell-Cell+Fusion.">Actin-Propelled Invasive Membrane Protrusions Promote Fusogenic Protein Engagement During Cell-Cell Fusion.</a> Science. 340, 359-363 (2013).</li><li>Freeman, S. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrins+Form+an+Expanding+Diffusional+Barrier+That+Coordinates+Phagocytosis.">Integrins Form an Expanding Diffusional Barrier That Coordinates Phagocytosis.</a> Cell. 164, 128-140 (2016).</li></ol>

Não há conflitos de interesse declarados.

Propriedades do material
A escolha do material para a membrana deformável, no nosso caso Formvar, precisa cumprir alguns requisitos. O material deve ser transparente à luz visível e apresentam fluorescência auto limitada para permitir as observações em campo claro e microscopia de fluorescência. A rugosidade do filme fino deve estar abaixo de 10 nm para evitar qualquer efeito topográfico na adesão celular e para permitir a observação clara das saliências induzida p...

As células animais interagirem fisicamente com a matriz e as outras células que constituem o seu ambiente1. Isso é necessário para que eles migram, internalizar os corpos, adquirir informações externas ou diferenciar. Em tais processos, a célula deve gerar forças mecânicas e, como numerosos estudos têm demonstrado ao longo dos últimos anos, a capacidade de uma célula para gerar forças e sonda ambiente influencia seu comportamento biológico, dirigindo por exemplo proliferação ou diferenciação de2,3. Por sua vez, a medição de forças celulares é uma grande ajuda para estudar o Regulamento de geração de força e entender a sua implicação na célula destino4,comportamento e tecido5.
Últimos anos têm testemunhado o desenvolvimento de inúmeras técnicas para medir as forças que uma célula pode exercer sobre seu ambiente6. A maioria destes têm sido fundamentais para revelar que a tração forças que células exercem como eles puxam em sondas móveis ou um substrato deformável. No entanto, as forças mecânicas envolvidas em protrusão no ambiente extracelular sofrem com a falta de técnicas de medição e são até à data não bem caracterizada.
Para contornar essa limitação, apresentamos um método para medir forças exercidas ortogonalmente ao substrato. Ela consiste no chapeamento de células vivas em uma folha fina e elástica que pode deformar-se na direção ortogonal, tornando possível medir a deformação do substrato pelas células e deduzir as forças envolvidas. Topografia de substrato é medida com resolução nanoescala usando microscopia de força atômica e a avaliação das forças de deformação baseia-se no conhecimento da geometria do cêntrica estruturas celulares7,8, 9.
Aqui, descrevemos a configuração e a sua aplicação para medir as forças geradas pela podosomes, estruturas de adesão cêntrica formadas por macrófagos para sua migração mesenquimal em ambientes tridimensionais10,11, 12,13,14,15,16,17. Acreditamos que esta técnica vai avançar a compreensão da geração de força e sua regulação em muitos processos celulares que envolvem protrusão.

<table><tbody><tr><td>200 mesh nickel grids</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>G200-Ni</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Filter paper</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>1001-055</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope slides</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>10235612</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>White stickers 26 x 70 mm</td><td>Avery</td><td>DP033-100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Film casting device with valve in its outlet</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>71305-01</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Razorblades</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>72000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol</td><td>VWR</td><td>1.08543.0250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acetone</td><td>VWR</td><td>20066.321</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Formvar 0.5% solution in ethylene dichloride</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>15820</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>12 mm coverslips</td><td>VWR</td><td>631-0666</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Inverted microscope</td><td>Carl Zeiss</td><td>Axiovert 200</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Atomic Force Microscope</td><td>JPK Instruments</td><td>NanoWizard III</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Temperature-controlled sample holder&amp;nbsp;</td><td>JPK Instruments</td><td>BioCell</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silicon nitride cantilever with a nominal spring constant of 0.01 N/m</td><td>Veeco Instruments</td><td>MLCT-AUHW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PBS</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14190-094</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Double-sided adhesive tape</td><td>APLI AGIPA</td><td>118100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RPMI 1640</td><td>Gibco</td><td>31870-025</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>FCS</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>F7524</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEPES&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>H0887</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>35 mm glass-bottom Petri dishes</td><td>WPI</td><td>FD35-100</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

protrusion force microscopy: a method to quantify forces developed by cell protrusions

Em inúmeros contextos biológicos, células animais precisam interagir fisicamente com o seu ambiente através do desenvolvimento de forças mecânicas. Entre estes, as forças de tração foram bem caracterizadas, mas há uma falta de técnicas que permite a medição de protrusão forças exercidas pelas células ortogonalmente à sua carcaça. Nós projetamos uma instalação experimental para medir as forças de protrusão exercidas pelas células aderentes em sua carcaça. Células banhadas em uma folha de Formvar compatível com deformam o substrato e a topografia resultante é mapeada por microscopia de força atômica (AFM) à escala nanométrica. Valores de força então são extraídos de uma análise do perfil deformação baseado na geometria das estruturas celulares cêntrica. Portanto, as forças exercidas pelas unidades individuais salientes de uma célula viva podem ser medidas ao longo do tempo. Esta técnica permitirá que o estudo da geração de força e sua regulação em muitos processos celulares que envolvem protrusão. Aqui, descrevemos o seu aplicativo para medir as forças cêntrica geradas por podosomes formado por macrófagos humanos.

O protocolo acima descreve como preparar a instalação experimental para quantificar as forças de protrusão aplicadas pelos macrófagos podosomes sobre um substrato de Formvar. Isto é conseguido usando AFM e é ilustrado na Figura 1.
Ao analisar uma imagem topográfica de protuberâncias abaixo podosomes usando o software de processamento de dados JPK, um polinômio de terceiro grau se encaixam ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Protrusion Force Microscopy: A Method to Quantify Forces Developed by Cell Protrusions at JoVE.com

Protrusion Force Microscopy: A Method to Quantify Forces Developed by Cell Protrusions

Aqui, detalhamos as técnicas experimentais utilizadas para avaliar as forças de saliência que podosomes aplicar sobre um filme compatível, desde a preparação do filme para a análise automatizada de imagens topográficas.

Microscopia de força de protrusão: Um método para quantificar as forças desenvolvidas pela célula saliências

In numerous biological contexts, animal cells need to interact physically with their environment by developing mechanical forces. Among these, traction ...

protrusion-force-microscopy-method-to-quantify-forces-developed-cell

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

5.5K visualizações.  IPBS, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS. Aqui, detalhamos as técnicas experimentais utilizadas para avaliar as forças de saliência que podosomes aplicar sobre um filme compatível, desde a preparação do filme para a análise automatizada de imagens topográficas.

Vídeo: Protrusion Force Microscopy: A Method to Quantify Forces Developed by Cell Protrusions

A Direct Force Probe for Measuring Mechanical Integration Between the Nucleus and the Cytoskeleton

The mechanical properties of the nucleus determine its response to mechanical forces generated in cells. Because the nucleus is molecularly continuous with the cytoskeleton, methods are needed to probe its mechanical behavior in adherent cells. Here, we discuss the direct force probe (DFP) as a tool to apply force directly to the nucleus in a living adherent cell. We attach a narrow micropipette to the nuclear surface with suction. The micropipette is translated away from the nucleus, which causes the nucleus to deform and translate. When the restoring force is equal to the suction force, the nucleus detaches and elastically relaxes. Because the suction pressure is precisely known, the force on the nuclear surface is known. This method has revealed that nano-scale forces are sufficient to deform and translate the nucleus in adherent cells, and identified cytoskeletal elements that enable the nucleus to resist forces. The DFP can be used to dissect the contributions of cellular and nuclear components to nuclear mechanical properties in living cells.

In this protocol, we describe a micropipette method to directly apply a controlled force to the nucleus in a living cell. This assay allows interrogation of nuclear mechanical properties in the living, adherent cell.

Uma sonda de força direta para medir a integração mecânica entre o núcleo e o citoesqueleto

The mechanical properties of the nucleus determine its response to mechanical forces generated in cells. Because the nucleus is molecularly continuous ...

Bioquímica

Perturbing Endothelial Biomechanics via Connexin 43 Structural Disruption

Endothelial cells have been established to generate intercellular stresses and tractions, but the role gap junctions play in endothelial intercellular stress and traction generation is currently unknown. Therefore, we present here a mechanics-based protocol to probe the influence of gap junction connexin 43 (Cx43) has on endothelial biomechanics by exposing confluent endothelial monolayers to a known Cx43 inhibitor 2,5-dihydroxychalcone (chalcone) and measuring the impact this inhibitor has on tractions and intercellular stresses. We present representative results, which show a decrease in both tractions and intercellular stresses under a high chalcone dosage (2 &#181;g/mL) when compared to control. This protocol can be applied to not just Cx43, but also other gap junctions as well, assuming the appropriate inhibitor is used. We believe this protocol will be useful in the fields of cardiovascular and mechanobiology research.

Here, we present a mechanics-based protocol to disrupt the gap junction connexin 43 and measure the subsequent impact this has on endothelial biomechanics via observation of tractions and intercellular stresses.

Perturbando a biomecânica endotelial via connexin 43 disrupção estrutural

Endothelial cells have been established to generate intercellular stresses and tractions, but the role gap junctions play in endothelial intercellular ...

Fluorescence Biomembrane Force Probe: Concurrent Quantitation of Receptor-ligand Kinetics and Binding-induced Intracellular Signaling on a Single Cell

Membrane receptor-ligand interactions mediate many cellular functions. Binding kinetics and downstream signaling triggered by these molecular interactions are likely affected by the mechanical environment in which binding and signaling take place. A recent study demonstrated that mechanical force can regulate antigen recognition by and triggering of the T-cell receptor (TCR). This was made possible by a new technology we developed and termed fluorescence biomembrane force probe (fBFP), which combines single-molecule force spectroscopy with fluorescence microscopy. Using an ultra-soft human red blood cell as the sensitive force sensor, a high-speed camera and real-time imaging tracking techniques, the fBFP is of ~1 pN (10-12 N), ~3 nm and ~0.5 msec in force, spatial and temporal resolution. With the fBFP, one can precisely measure single receptor-ligand binding kinetics under force regulation and simultaneously image binding-triggered intracellular calcium signaling on a single live cell. This new technology can be used to study other membrane receptor-ligand interaction and signaling in other cells under mechanical regulation.

We describe a technique for concurrently measuring force-regulated single receptor-ligand binding kinetics and real-time imaging of calcium signaling in a single T lymphocyte.

Fluorescência Biomembrane Força Probe: quantificação simultânea de Kinetics receptor de ligando e induzida Encadernação-Sinalização Intracelular em uma única célula

Membrane receptor-ligand interactions mediate many cellular functions. Binding kinetics and downstream signaling triggered by these molecular interactions ...

Bioengenharia

Probing Cell Mechanics with Bead-Free Optical Tweezers in the Drosophila Embryo

Morphogenesis requires coordination between genetic patterning and mechanical forces to robustly shape the cells and tissues. Hence, a challenge to understand morphogenetic processes is to directly measure cellular forces and mechanical properties in vivo during embryogenesis. Here, we present a setup of optical tweezers coupled to a light sheet microscope, which allows to directly apply forces on cell-cell contacts of the early Drosophila embryo, while imaging at a speed of several frames per second. This technique has the advantage that it does not require the injection of beads into the embryo, usually used as intermediate probes on which optical forces are exerted. We detail step by step the implementation of the setup, and propose tools to extract mechanical information from the experiments. By monitoring the displacements of cell-cell contacts in real time, one can perform tension measurements and investigate cell contacts&#39; rheology.

Probing Cell Mechanics with Bead-Free Optical Tweezers in the Drosophila Embryo

We present a setup of optical tweezers coupled to a light sheet microscope, and its implementation to probe cell mechanics without beads in the Drosophila embryo.

Sondando a célula mecânica com pinça óptica de grânulo-livre no embrião da drosófila

Morphogenesis requires coordination between genetic patterning and mechanical forces to robustly shape the cells and tissues. Hence, a challenge to ...

Biologia do Desenvolvimento

Direct Force Measurements of Subcellular Mechanics in Confinement using Optical Tweezers

During the development of a multicellular organism, a single fertilized cell divides and gives rise to multiple tissues with diverse functions. Tissue morphogenesis goes in hand with molecular and structural changes at the single cell level that result in variations of subcellular mechanical properties. As a consequence, even within the same cell, different organelles and compartments resist differently to mechanical stresses; and mechanotransduction pathways can actively regulate their mechanical properties. The ability of a cell to adapt to the microenvironment of the tissue niche thus is in part due to the ability to sense and respond to mechanical stresses. We recently proposed a new mechanosensation paradigm in which nuclear deformation and positioning enables a cell to gauge the physical 3D environment and endows the cell with a sense of proprioception to decode changes in cell shape. In this article, we describe a new method to measure the forces and material properties that shape the cell nucleus inside living cells, exemplified on adherent cells and mechanically confined cells. The measurements can be performed non-invasively with optical traps inside cells, and the forces are directly accessible through calibration-free detection of light momentum. This allows measuring the mechanics of the nucleus independently from cell surface deformations and allowing dissection of exteroceptive and interoceptive mechanotransduction pathways. Importantly, the trapping experiment can be combined with optical microscopy to investigate the cellular response and subcellular dynamics using fluorescence imaging of the cytoskeleton, calcium ions, or nuclear morphology. The presented method is straightforward to apply, compatible with commercial solutions for force measurements, and can easily be extended to investigate the mechanics of other subcellular compartments, e.g., mitochondria, stress-fibers, and endosomes.

Here, we present a protocol to investigate the intracellular mechanical properties of isolated embryonic zebrafish cells in three-dimensional confinement with direct force measurement by an optical trap.

Medições de força direta de mecânica subcelular em confinamento usando pinças ópticas

During the development of a multicellular organism, a single fertilized cell divides and gives rise to multiple tissues with diverse functions. Tissue ...

Study of the Actin Cytoskeleton in Live Endothelial Cells Expressing GFP-Actin

The microvascular endothelium plays an important role as a selectively permeable barrier to fluids and solutes. The adhesive junctions between endothelial cells regulate permeability of the endothelium, and many studies have indicated the important contribution of the actin cytoskeleton to determining junctional integrity1-5. A cortical actin belt is thought to be important for the maintenance of stable junctions1, 2, 4, 5. In contrast, actin stress fibers are thought to generate centripetal tension within endothelial cells that weakens junctions2-5. Much of this theory has been based on studies in which endothelial cells are treated with inflammatory mediators known to increase endothelial permeability, and then fixing the cells and labeling F-actin for microscopic observation. However, these studies provide a very limited understanding of the role of the actin cytoskeleton because images of fixed cells provide only snapshots in time with no information about the dynamics of actin structures5. 
Live-cell imaging allows incorporation of the dynamic nature of the actin cytoskeleton into the studies of the mechanisms determining endothelial barrier integrity. A major advantage of this method is that the impact of various inflammatory stimuli on actin structures in endothelial cells can be assessed in the same set of living cells before and after treatment, removing potential bias that may occur when observing fixed specimens. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) are transfected with a GFP-&beta;-actin plasmid and grown to confluence on glass coverslips. Time-lapse images of GFP-actin in confluent HUVEC are captured before and after the addition of inflammatory mediators that elicit time-dependent changes in endothelial barrier integrity. These studies enable visual observation of the fluid sequence of changes in the actin cytoskeleton that contribute to endothelial barrier disruption and restoration. 
Our results consistently show local, actin-rich lamellipodia formation and turnover in endothelial cells. The formation and movement of actin stress fibers can also be observed. An analysis of the frequency of formation and turnover of the local lamellipodia, before and after treatment with inflammatory stimuli can be documented by kymograph analyses. These studies provide important information on the dynamic nature of the actin cytoskeleton in endothelial cells that can used to discover previously unidentified molecular mechanisms important for the maintenance of endothelial barrier integrity.

Microscopic imaging of live endothelial cells expressing GFP-actin allows characterization of dynamic changes in cytoskeletal structures. Unlike techniques that use fixed specimens, this method provides a detailed assessment of temporal changes in the actin cytoskeleton in the same cells before, during, and after various physical, pharmacological, or inflammatory stimuli.

Estudo do citoesqueleto de actina em Live Células Endoteliais Expressando GFP-Actina

The microvascular endothelium plays an important role as a selectively permeable barrier to fluids and solutes. The adhesive junctions between endothelial ...

Biologia

Fabrication and Implementation of a Reference-Free Traction Force Microscopy Platform

Quantifying cell-induced material deformation provides useful information concerning how cells sense and respond to the physical properties of their microenvironment. While many approaches exist for measuring cell-induced material strain, here we provide a methodology for monitoring strain with sub-micron resolution in a reference-free manner. Using a two-photon activated photolithographic patterning process, we demonstrate how to generate mechanically and bio-actively tunable synthetic substrates containing embedded arrays of fluorescent fiducial markers to easily measure three-dimensional (3D) material deformation profiles in response to surface tractions. Using these substrates, cell tension profiles can be mapped using a single 3D image stack of a cell of interest. Our goal with this methodology is to make traction force microscopy a more accessible and easier to implement tool for researchers studying cellular mechanotransduction processes, especially newcomers to the field.

This protocol provides instructions for implementing multiphoton lithography to fabricate three-dimensional arrays of fluorescent fiducial markers embedded in poly(ethylene glycol)-based hydrogels for use as reference-free, traction force microscopy platforms. Using these instructions, measurement of 3D material strain and calculation of cellular tractions is simplified to promote high-throughput traction force measurements.

Fabricação e implementação de uma plataforma de microscopia de força de tração sem referência

Quantifying cell-induced material deformation provides useful information concerning how cells sense and respond to the physical properties of their ...

Traction Force Microscopy to Study B Lymphocyte Activation

Traction force microscopy (TFM) enables the measurement of forces produced by a cell on a substrate. This technique infers traction force measurements from an experimentally observed displacement field produced by a cell pulling on an elastic substrate. Here, we adapted TFM to investigate the spatial and temporal structure of the force field exerted by B cells when activated by antigen engagement of the B cell receptor. Gel rigidity, bead density, and protein functionalization must be optimized for the study of relatively small cells (~ 6 &#181;m) that interact with, and respond specifically to ligands for cell surface receptors.

Here we present a protocol used to perform traction force microscopy experiments on B cells. We describe the preparation of soft polyacrylamide gels and their functionalization, as well as data acquisition at the microscope and a summary of data analysis.

Microscopia de Força de Tração para Estudar ativação de linfócitos B

Traction force microscopy (TFM) enables the measurement of forces produced by a cell on a substrate. This technique infers traction force measurements ...

Pattern Generation for Micropattern Traction Microscopy

Micropattern traction microscopy allows control of the shape of single cells and cell clusters. Furthermore, the ability to pattern at the micrometer length scale allows the use of these patterned contact zones for the measurement of traction forces, as each micropatterned dot allows for the formation of a single focal adhesion that then deforms the soft, underlying hydrogel. This approach has been used for a wide range of cell types, including endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts, platelets, and epithelial cells. 
This review describes the evolution of techniques that allow the printing of extracellular matrix proteins onto polyacrylamide hydrogels in a regular array of dots of prespecified size and spacing. As micrometer-scale patterns are difficult to directly print onto soft substrates, patterns are first generated on rigid glass coverslips that are then used to transfer the pattern to the hydrogel during gelation. First, the original microcontact printing approach to generate arrays of small dots on the coverslip is described. A second step that removes most of the pattern to leave islands of small dots is required to control the shapes of cells and cell clusters on such arrays of patterned dots. 
Next, an evolution of this approach that allows for the generation of islands of dots using a single subtractive patterning step is described. This approach is greatly simplified for the user but has the disadvantage of a decreased lifetime for the master mold needed to make the patterns. Finally, the computational approaches that have been developed for the analysis of images of displaced dots and subsequent cell-generated traction fields are described, and updated versions of these analysis packages are provided.

We describe improvements to a standard method for measuring cellular traction forces, based on microcontact printing with a single subtractive patterning step of dot arrays of extracellular matrix proteins on soft hydrogels. This method allows for simpler and more consistent fabrication of island patterns, essential for controlling cell cluster shape.

Geração de Padrões para Microscopia de Tração de Micropattern

Micropattern traction microscopy allows control of the shape of single cells and cell clusters. Furthermore, the ability to pattern at the micrometer ...

Analyses of Actin Dynamics, Clutch Coupling and Traction Force for Growth Cone Advance

To establish functional networks, neurons must migrate to their appropriate destinations and then extend axons toward their target cells. These processes depend on the advances of growth cones that located at the tips of neurites. Axonal growth cones generate driving forces by sensing their local microenvironment and modulating cytoskeletal dynamics and actin-adhesion coupling (clutch coupling). Decades of research have led to the identification of guidance molecules, their receptors, and downstream signaling cascades for regulating neuronal migration and axonal guidance; however, the molecular machineries required for generating forces to drive growth cone advance and navigation are just beginning to be elucidated. At the leading edge of neuronal growth cones, actin filaments undergo retrograde flow, which is powered by actin polymerization and actomyosin contraction. A clutch coupling between F-actin retrograde flow and adhesive substrate generates traction forces for growth cone advance. The present study describes a detailed protocol for monitoring F-actin retrograde flow by single speckle imaging. Importantly, when combined with an F-actin marker Lifeact, this technique can quantify 1) the F-actin polymerization rate and 2) the clutch coupling efficiency between F-actin retrograde flow and the adhesive substrate. Both are critical variables for generating forces for growth cone advance and navigation. In addition, the present study describes a detailed protocol of traction force microscopy, which can quantify 3) traction force generated by growth cones. Thus, by coupling the analyses of&#160;single speckle imaging and traction force microscopy, investigators can monitor the molecular mechanics underlying growth cone advance and navigation.

To advance, growth cones must exert traction forces against the external environment. The generation of traction forces is dependent on actin dynamics and clutch coupling. The present study describes methods for analyzing actin dynamics, clutch coupling and traction forces for growth cone advance.

Análises da Actin Dynamics, Clutch Coupling e Força de Tração para o Avanço do Cone de Crescimento

To establish functional networks, neurons must migrate to their appropriate destinations and then extend axons toward their target cells. These processes ...