This work was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health (R01 AR067247) and in part by the Delaware INBRE program, supported by a grant from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences-NIGMS (P20 GM103446) from the National Institutes of Health and the State of Delaware. The contents of the manuscript do not necessarily reflect the views of the funding agencies.

1. Cell culture and image acquisition
<ol>
	<li>Culture RAW264.7 macrophages at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 in Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 1% penicillin-streptomycin, 1.5 g/L sodium bicarbonate, and 5 &#181;M &#946;-mercaptoethanol.
	<ol>
		<li>For monoculture imaging, culture RAW264.7 cells at a density of 25,000 cells/cm2 in a 5 mL cell culture flask with 1 mL of medium.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Culture NIH/3T3 cells at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 in DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin-streptomycin11.</li>
	<li>For coculture imaging, culture RAW264.7 macrophages and NIH/3T3 fibroblasts together at varied ratios, at a total density of 25,000 cells/cm2. Use coculture medium that is 1 part RAW264.7 medium (DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS, 1% penicillin-streptomycin, 1.5 g/L sodium bicarbonate, and 5 &#181;M &#946;-mercaptoethanol) and 1 part NIH/3T3 medium (DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin-streptomycin).</li>
	<li>Following seeding, incubate cells at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 to reach a viable cell density of 80% cell confluence.</li>
	<li>Image cells with an inverted microscope equipped with a 40x objective. Acquire all images in grayscale and export them in the raw &#39;.czi&#39; file.
	<ol>
		<li>Determine the capacity of the algorithm to accurately evaluate images with a range of image qualities. Acquire images with varying foci, producing both &#39;non-bulbous&#39; images (Figure 2) and &#39;bulbous&#39; images (Figure 3).</li>
		<li>Export and convert cell images to the 8-bit tiff (.tiff) image format using ImageJ using the &#39;Batch Convert&#39; function on the raw &#39;.czi&#39; files prior to MATLAB analysis. Store converted images in a local folder and manually transfer these image files to the relevant MATLAB bin.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Image analysis-monoculture utilizing the &#34;monoculture.m&#34; file primarily
NOTE: The following steps were performed using MATLAB. Three files were used for the MATLAB protocol: &#34;process.m&#34; (Supplemental coding file 1), the file containing the algorithm, &#34;monoculture.m&#34; (Supplemental coding file 2), the file to run for analyzing monoculture images, and &#34;coculture_modified.m&#34; (Supplemental coding file 3), the file to run for analyzing coculture images.
<ol>
	<li>Use the area-based method to obtain images of cells showing relative height variations. Image outputs for each substep by utilizing the &#39;imshow()&#39; function for each subimage. Copy and paste the image file for analysis into the bin and enter the file name in the following command. Press run to start the program. 
	imread(&#39;filename.tiff&#39;)
	<ol>
		<li>Analyze images by &#39;opening by reconstruction&#39; followed by &#39;closing by reconstruction&#39; using source functions8 to magnify the foreground from the background. Use the first command for opening by reconstruction and the second and third sequences to close by reconstruction 
		&#39;imopen()&#39; 
		&#39;imerode()&#39; 
		&#39;imreconstruct()&#39;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Binarize the reconstructed images to pure black and pure white pixels utilizing a percentile-based identification system. Note that cells are converted to a pure white pixel value of &#39;255&#39; in this system, whereas background and extraneous (non-cellular) objects are converted to a pure black pixel value of &#39;0&#39;.
	<ol>
		<li>Distinguish cells from the background by using a percentile difference from the &#39;maximum relevant pixel,&#39; the largest pixel value comprising at least 0.5% of a given image.</li>
		<li>Analyze and evaluate the pixel values for RAW264.7 macrophages. If these values are within 4.5% of the maximum relevant pixel, then mark the pixel as cellular. 
		NOTE: This command can be issued using a simple if statement.</li>
		<li>For images containing bulbous cell profiles, such as those seen in Figure 2, implement an iterative procedure to correct for erroneous binarization at the centers of the cells (termed &#39;islands;&#39; see below), as follows.</li>
		<li>Determine an initial guess for the total cell coverage; 60% was utilized for this study. Note that the number of cells present within the image should be dependent on the cell coverage-the relationship between cell number and cell coverage can therefore be determined experimentally. Using this relationship, determine the variables &#39;Alpha&#39; and &#39;kappa.&#39; 
		NOTE: &#39;Alpha&#39; represents a 3 x 1 vector containing the following relative height percentiles: the height percentile at which cells were identified, the height percentile at which the background was identified, and the height percentile at which islands-regions in which intensity values were significantly lower than cell values-typically resided. &#39;Kappa&#39; represents the total area covered by cells in the image.</li>
		<li>Run the algorithm, which will (i) analyze images using initial estimates of alpha and kappa to fill a portion of the islands, and (ii) use the postanalysis cell counts and coverage to recalculate kappa. If the kappa value is within 10% of the initial guess, proceed to the next step. 
		NOTE: For images containing RAW264.7 and NIH/3T3 cells, alpha was found to be [4.3, 5.5, 10]. In other words, a difference of 4.3% from the maximum relevant pixel determined the height percentile at which cells were identified, a difference of 5.5% from the maximum relevant pixel determined the height percentile at which the background was identified. A difference of 10% from the maximum relevant pixel determined the height percentile at which islands typically resided.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Following binarization of the image, determine the average cell area automatically using the open-source circle finding algorithm, which performs a Hough transform on the binarized image12,13,14. Use the following command to obtain a vector of all center locations and radii of circles found within the image. 
	&#39;[centers, radii] = imfindcircle(A, [minradius, maxradius])&#39; 
	&#39;A&#39; in this command is the image of choice, and [minradius, maxradius] is the range of radii that the algorithm will attempt to detect. 
	NOTE: This procedure to determine the average cell area assumes that the morphology of macrophage cells was both circular and consistent among cells10. From experimental data, the radii of macrophages are observed to be most commonly between 30 and 50 pixels at 40x magnification. This pixel range is defined as the acceptable range for the circle finding algorithm. The radii might be significantly different for other cell types and would require determination using experimental analysis.
	<ol>
		<li>Use the radii outputs to calculate the average cell area by averaging. Analyze at least 10 cells to ensure accurate area identification.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Determine the total number of cells within the image using the average cell area.
	<ol>
		<li>Loop through the image matrix and count the total number of cell pixels. Determine the total cell coverage by dividing the number of cell pixels by the total number of pixels within the image. Determine the total number of cells within the image by dividing the number of cell pixels by the average area of a cell.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Image analysis-coculture utilizing the &#34;coculture_modified.m&#34; file primarily
NOTE: The following steps were performed using MATLAB.
<ol>
	<li>Use the area-based method to obtain images of cells showing relative height variations. Image outputs for each substep by utilizing the &#39;imshow()&#39; function for each subimage. Copy and paste the image file for analysis into the bin and enter the file name in the following command. Press run to start the program. 
	&#39;imread(&#39;filename.tiff&#39;)&#39;
	<ol>
		<li>Analyze images by &#39;opening by reconstruction&#39; followed by &#39;closing by reconstruction&#39; using source functions10 to magnify the foreground from the background. Use the first command for opening by reconstruction and the second and third sequences to close by reconstruction. 
		&#39;imopen ()&#39; 
		&#39;imerode()&#39; 
		&#39;imreconstruct()&#39;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Conduct an analysis of cocultures containing RAW264.7 and NIH/3T3 cells by using two selective binarizations, obtained by exploiting the height differences between the two cell types.
	<ol>
		<li>Experimentally determine a parameter &#39;phi&#39; using images of RAW264.7 and NIH/3T3 cells, with phi representing the proportional height difference between the two cell types. Guess an initial phi value and iterate until cell counts and coverage match closely with manual counts, specific to the RAW264.7 and NIH/3T3 coculture. 
		NOTE: The value for phi used in these studies was found to be 3.2. Phi is used to selectively filter an image to appear to contain only RAW264.7 cells, as seen in Figure 4C.</li>
		<li>Determine RAW264.7 cell counts and total cell coverage in a similar fashion as for monoculture images.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analyze the watershed-transformed image again without the phi parameter, detecting both macrophages and fibroblasts. Acquire NIH/3T3 fibroblast data by selectively subtracting RAW264.7 cell pixels, obtained using the standard thresholding and area-based quantification methods described in step 2.
	<ol>
		<li>Once the entire image has been analyzed, determine the total number of NIH/3T3 pixels by subtracting the total number of cell pixels from the number of RAW264.7 pixels. Calculate the coverage of NIH/3T3 and RAW264.7 cells by dividing by the number of cell pixels for each cell line by the total number of image pixels.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

We designed a general area-based procedure that accurately and efficiently counted cells on the basis of cell height, allowing for stain-free quantitation of cells even in coculture systems. Critical steps for this procedure included the implementation of a relative intensity system by which cells could be differentiated. The use of a relative height analysis served two purposes: the need for external parameters was rendered unnecessary, as relative parameters were constant for the given cell type and parameter, and abso...

Software is routinely implemented during image analysis techniques to ensure that the results are accurate, efficient, and unbiased. For cell-based assays, a common problem is the misidentification of cells. Images with improper focal and contrast settings may lead to cell blurring, in which the boundary of individual cells becomes hard to identify1. The presence of extraneous image features such as pores, bubbles, or other undesired objects can hamper counting procedures by slowing the counting process and leading to misidentification. Furthermore, cell counting can be onerous, and counting hundreds of replicates can be extremely time-consuming. Moreover, an inherent subjective bias exists during manual counting, and therefore decision-making regarding cell identification is often inaccurate2. Automated software offers exciting potential to bypass all these issues by rapidly and precisely differentiating cells from extraneous objects, including objects far beyond human capacity for precise detection, based on well-defined identification criteria that reduce the influence of investigator bias. Common techniques to identify cells using automated software involve two main methods: segmentation and thresholding3. Herein, we demonstrate a generalizable area-based protocol that enables rapid, accurate, and inexpensive cell counting within a widely accessible software framework.
Segmentation techniques, such as edge detection, seek to isolate individual cells by utilizing intensity differences within an image. Intensity changes that distinguish a cell from the rest of the image most often consist of sharp changes in brightness4. Edge detection involves a regularizing filtering step, followed by a differentiation step in which intensity changes are detected. The differentiation process identifies edges and contours within the image of high-intensity changes, and these edges and contours are correlated with cell presence.&#160;Although images with noise can be run through denoising algorithms4, edge detection techniques are ideally used for analyzing images with low background noise. The process functions optimally when cell boundaries are clearly and easily distinguishable and are not impeded by brightness contours unrelated to cell presence, cell blur, extraneous objects, or defined internal cell structures1,2. If an image is particularly noisy, cells may be further distinguished through fluorescent staining or transfection with fluorescent proteins2,5. Although this significantly improves the accuracy of segmentation techniques, it requires added costs and additional time investments to prepare cell cultures for imaging.
Thresholding techniques involve the division of an image into two categories: the foreground and the background, with cells assigned to the foreground3. These techniques utilize color/contrast changes to define the apparent height of an object; objects that are routinely &#39;taller&#39; than the background can be easily identified as cells. The watershed-transform functions in this way by associating surfaces with light pixels as the foreground and those with dark pixels as the background6,7. Through height-based identification, thresholding techniques can routinely distinguish noise from desired objects, provided they exist within the same focal plane. When paired with an area-based quantification, a watershed-transform can accurately identify groups of objects in environments where typical segmentation techniques such as edge detection would be inaccurate.
Watershed-transforms are commonly coupled with segmentation techniques to prepare images for a cleaner analysis, resulting in higher accuracy of cell counting. For this process, the watershed-transform is used to highlight potential regions of interest prior to segmentation. A watershed-transform provides unique benefits by identifying cells in the foreground of images, which can improve the accuracy of segmentation analysis by removing potential false positives for cells, such as uneven patches of background. However, difficulties can arise when attempting to adapt cell-based images to a watershed-transform. Images with high cell density can be plagued with undersegmentation, in which aggregates of cells are identified as a singular group rather than as individual components. The presence of noise or sharp intensity changes can also result in oversegmentation, in which the algorithm overisolates cells, resulting in excessive and inaccurate cell counts8.
Herein, we detail a method to minimize the primary drawbacks of the watershed-transform by incorporating components of a thresholding analysis within an area-based quantification algorithm, as depicted in Figure 1. Notably, this algorithm was implemented with open-source and/or widely available software, and application of this cell-counting framework was possible without expensive reagents or complex cell preparation techniques. RAW264.7 macrophages were used to demonstrate the method due to their critical role in regulating connective tissue maintenance and wound healing processes9. Additionally, NIH/3T3 fibroblasts were analyzed due to their key role in tissue maintenance and repair. Fibroblast cells often coexist with and support macrophages, generating the need to distinguish these phenotypically distinct cell types in coculture studies.
Cell counts from images with high viable cell density (VCD) could be quantified reliably and efficiently by calculating the area covered by the cells, and the average area occupied by a singular cell. The use of thresholding as opposed to segmentation for cell identification also enabled more complex analyses, such as experiments in which different cell types in cocultures were analyzed concurrently. NIH/3T3 fibroblasts, which are often found to colocalize with RAW264.7 macrophages within a wound healing site, were found to grow at a focal plane that was distinct from the focal plane of macrophages10. Accordingly, multiple thresholding algorithms were run to define the background and foreground depending on the cell type being analyzed, enabling accurate counting of two different cell types within the same image.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Axio Observer 7 Inverted Microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>1028290770</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>21985023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Scrapers</td>
			<td>CellTreat</td>
			<td>229310</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dublecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12430047</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dublecco&#39;s PBS</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14190144</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB Software</td>
			<td>MathWorks</td>
			<td>2021A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIH/3T3 Cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>ATCC CRL - 1658</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin&#8211;Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P4333-20ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RAW264.7 Cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>ATCC TIB - 71</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S6014-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T75 Cell Culture Flask</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>CLS3814-24EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

area-based image analysis algorithm for quantification of macrophage-fibroblast cocultures

Quantification of cells is necessary for a wide range of biological and biochemical studies. Conventional image analysis of cells typically employs either fluorescence detection approaches, such as immunofluorescent staining or transfection with fluorescent proteins or edge detection techniques, which are often error-prone due to noise and other non-idealities in the image background. 
We designed a new algorithm that could accurately count and distinguish macrophages and fibroblasts, cells of different phenotypes that often colocalize during tissue regeneration. MATLAB was used to implement the algorithm, which differentiated distinct cell types based on differences in height from the background. A primary algorithm was developed using an area-based method to account for variations in cell size/structure and high-density seeding conditions. 
Non-idealities in cell structures were accounted for with a secondary, iterative algorithm utilizing internal parameters such as cell coverage computed using experimental data for a given cell type. Finally, an analysis of coculture environments was carried out using an isolation algorithm in which various cell types were selectively excluded based on the evaluation of relative height differences within the image. This approach was found to accurately count cells within a 5% error margin for monocultured cells and within a 10% error margin for cocultured cells.

Analysis of non-bulbous RAW264.7 macrophages was conducted in a monoculture setting at 25,000 cells/cm2. Representative images were taken of the cell culture and processed in MATLAB following conversion to 8-bit tiff in ImageJ. Algorithm outputs throughout the process were recorded and documented in Figure 2 for the representative image. In this image, the algorithm counted 226 cells, and this image count was verified by comparison with a manual count that identified 241 cells (6....

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Area-based Image Analysis Algorithm for Quantification of Macrophage-fibroblast Cocultures at JoVE.com

Area-based Image Analysis Algorithm for Quantification of Macrophage-fibroblast Cocultures

We present a method, which utilizes a generalizable area-based image analysis approach to identify cell counts. Analysis of different cell populations exploited the significant cell height and structure differences between distinct cell types within an adaptive algorithm.

Quantification of cells is necessary for a wide range of biological and biochemical studies. Conventional image analysis of cells typically employs either ...

area-based-image-analysis-algorithm-for-quantification-macrophage

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

2.5K Views.  University of Delaware. We present a method, which utilizes a generalizable area-based image analysis approach to identify cell counts. Analysis of different cell populations exploited the significant cell height and structure differences between distinct cell types within an adaptive algorithm.

Video: Area-based Image Analysis Algorithm for Quantification of Macrophage-fibroblast Cocultures

Polymer Microarrays for High Throughput Discovery of Biomaterials

The discovery of novel biomaterials that are optimized for a specific biological application is readily achieved using polymer microarrays, which allows a combinatorial library of materials to be screened in a parallel, high throughput format1. Herein is described the formation and characterization of a polymer microarray using an on-chip photopolymerization technique 2. This involves mixing monomers at varied ratios to produce a library of monomer solutions, transferring the solution to a glass slide format using a robotic printing device and curing with UV irradiation. This format is readily amenable to many biological assays, including stem cell attachment and proliferation, cell sorting and low bacterial adhesion, allowing the ready identification of 'hit' materials that fulfill a specific biological criterion3-5. Furthermore, the use of high throughput surface characterization (HTSC) allows the biological performance to be correlated with physio-chemical properties, hence elucidating the biological-material interaction6. HTSC makes use of water contact angle (WCA) measurements, atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). In particular, ToF-SIMS provides a chemically rich analysis of the sample that can be used to correlate the cell response with a molecular moiety. In some cases, the biological performance can be predicted from the ToF-SIMS spectra, demonstrating the chemical dependence of a biological-material interaction, and informing the development of hit materials5,3.

A description of the formation of a polymer microarray using an on-chip photopolymerization technique. The high throughput surface characterization using atomic force microscopy, water contact angle measurements, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and a cell attachment assay is also described.

The discovery of novel biomaterials that are optimized for a specific biological application is readily achieved using polymer microarrays, which allows a ...

Micro-particle Image Velocimetry for Velocity Profile Measurements of Micro Blood Flows

Micro-particle image velocimetry (&mu;PIV) is used to visualize paired images of micro particles seeded in blood flows. The images are cross-correlated to give an accurate velocity profile. A protocol is presented for &mu;PIV measurements of blood flows in microchannels. At the scale of the microcirculation, blood cannot be considered a homogeneous fluid, as it is a suspension of flexible particles suspended in plasma, a Newtonian fluid. Shear rate, maximum velocity, velocity profile shape, and flow rate can be derived from these measurements. Several key parameters such as focal depth, particle concentration, and system compliance, are presented in order to ensure accurate, useful data along with examples and representative results for various hematocrits and flow conditions.

Micro-particle image velocimetry (&mu;PIV) is used to visualize paired images of micro particles seeded in blood flows which are cross-correlated to give an accurate velocity profile. Shear rate, maximum velocity, velocity profile shape, and flow rate, each of which has clinical applications, can be derived from these measurements.

Micro-particle image velocimetry (&mu;PIV) is used to visualize paired images of micro particles seeded in blood flows. The images are cross-correlated to ...

Self-reporting Scaffolds for 3-Dimensional Cell Culture

Culturing cells in 3D on appropriate scaffolds is thought to better mimic the in vivo microenvironment and increase cell-cell interactions. The resulting 3D cellular construct can often be more relevant to studying the molecular events and cell-cell interactions than similar experiments studied in 2D. To create effective 3D cultures with high cell viability throughout the scaffold the culture conditions such as oxygen and pH need to be carefully controlled as gradients in analyte concentration can exist throughout the 3D construct. Here we describe the methods of preparing biocompatible pH responsive sol-gel nanosensors and their incorporation into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) electrospun scaffolds along with their subsequent preparation for the culture of mammalian cells. The pH responsive scaffolds can be used as tools to determine microenvironmental pH within a 3D cellular construct. Furthermore, we detail the delivery of pH responsive nanosensors to the intracellular environment of mammalian cells whose growth was supported by electrospun PLGA scaffolds. The cytoplasmic location of the pH responsive nanosensors can be utilized to monitor intracellular pH (pHi) during ongoing experimentation.

Biocompatible pH responsive sol-gel nanosensors can be incorporated into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) electrospun scaffolds. The produced self-reporting scaffolds can be used for in&#160;situ monitoring of microenvironmental conditions whilst culturing cells upon the scaffold. This is beneficial as the 3D cellular construct can be monitored in real-time without disturbing the experiment.

Culturing cells in 3D on appropriate scaffolds is thought to better mimic the in vivo microenvironment and increase cell-cell interactions. The resulting ...

Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing for the Quantification of Endothelial Proliferation, Barrier Function, and Motility

Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) is an in vitro impedance measuring system to quantify the behavior of cells within adherent cell layers. To this end, cells are grown in special culture chambers on top of opposing, circular gold electrodes. A constant small alternating current is applied between the electrodes and the potential across is measured. The insulating properties of the cell membrane create a resistance towards the electrical current flow resulting in an increased electrical potential between the electrodes. Measuring cellular impedance in this manner allows the automated study of cell attachment, growth, morphology, function, and motility. Although the ECIS measurement itself is straightforward and easy to learn, the underlying theory is complex and selection of the right settings and correct analysis and interpretation of the data is not self-evident. Yet, a clear protocol describing the individual steps from the experimental design to preparation, realization, and analysis of the experiment is not available. In this article the basic measurement principle as well as possible applications, experimental considerations, advantages and limitations of the ECIS system are discussed. A guide is provided for the study of cell attachment, spreading and proliferation; quantification of cell behavior in a confluent layer, with regard to barrier function, cell motility, quality of cell-cell and cell-substrate adhesions; and quantification of wound healing and cellular responses to vasoactive stimuli. Representative results are discussed based on human microvascular (MVEC) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), but are applicable to all adherent growing cells.

This protocol reviews Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing, a method to record and analyze the impedance spectrum of adherent cells for the quantification of cell attachment, proliferation, motility, and cellular responses to pharmacological and toxic stimuli. Detection of endothelial permeability and assessment of cell-cell and cell-substrate contacts are emphasized.

Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) is an in vitro impedance measuring system to quantify the behavior of cells within adherent cell layers. ...

Quantification of Global Diastolic Function by Kinematic Modeling-based Analysis of Transmitral Flow via the Parametrized Diastolic Filling Formalism

Quantitative cardiac function assessment remains a challenge for physiologists and clinicians.&#160;Although historically invasive methods have comprised the only means available, the development of noninvasive imaging modalities (echocardiography, MRI, CT) having high temporal and spatial resolution provide a new window for quantitative diastolic function assessment. Echocardiography is the agreed upon standard for diastolic function assessment, but indexes in current clinical use merely utilize selected features of chamber dimension (M-mode) or blood/tissue motion (Doppler) waveforms without incorporating the physiologic causal determinants of the motion itself.&#160;The recognition that all left ventricles (LV) initiate filling by serving as mechanical suction pumps allows global diastolic function to be assessed based on laws of motion that apply to all chambers. What differentiates one heart from another are the parameters of the equation of motion that governs filling. Accordingly, development of the Parametrized Diastolic Filling (PDF) formalism&#160;has shown that the entire range of clinically observed early transmitral flow (Doppler E-wave) patterns are extremely well fit by the laws of damped oscillatory motion.&#160;This permits analysis of individual E-waves in accordance with a causal mechanism (recoil-initiated suction) that yields three (numerically) unique lumped parameters whose physiologic analogues are chamber stiffness (k), viscoelasticity/relaxation (c), and load (xo).&#160;The recording of transmitral flow (Doppler E-waves) is standard practice in clinical cardiology and, therefore, the echocardiographic recording method is only briefly reviewed. Our focus is on determination of the PDF parameters from routinely recorded E-wave data.&#160;As the highlighted results indicate, once the PDF parameters have been obtained from a suitable number of load varying E-waves, the investigator is free to use the parameters or construct indexes from the parameters (such as stored energy 1/2kxo2, maximum A-V pressure gradient kxo, load independent index of diastolic function, etc.) and select the aspect of physiology or pathophysiology to be quantified.

Accurate, causality-based quantification of global diastolic function has been achieved by kinematic modeling-based analysis of transmitral flow via the Parametrized Diastolic Filling (PDF) formalism. PDF generates unique stiffness, relaxation,&#160;and load parameters and elucidates &#39;new&#39; physiology while providing sensitive and specific indexes of dysfunction.

Quantitative cardiac function assessment remains a challenge for physiologists and clinicians.&#160;Although historically invasive methods have comprised ...

Hybrid &#181;CT-FMT imaging and image analysis

Fluorescence-mediated tomography (FMT) enables longitudinal and quantitative determination of the fluorescence distribution in vivo and can be used to assess the biodistribution of novel probes and to assess disease progression using established molecular probes or reporter genes. The combination with an anatomical modality, e.g., micro computed tomography (&#181;CT), is beneficial for image analysis and for fluorescence reconstruction. We describe a protocol for multimodal &#181;CT-FMT imaging including the image processing steps necessary to extract quantitative measurements. After preparing the mice and performing the imaging, the multimodal data sets are registered. Subsequently, an improved fluorescence reconstruction is performed, which takes into account the shape of the mouse. For quantitative analysis, organ segmentations are generated based on the anatomical data using our interactive segmentation tool. Finally, the biodistribution curves are generated using a batch-processing feature. We show the applicability of the method by assessing the biodistribution of a well-known probe that binds to bones and joints.

Hybrid  &#181;CT-FMT imaging and image analysis

We describe a protocol for hybrid imaging, combining fluorescence-mediated tomography (FMT) with micro computed tomography (&#181;CT). After fusion and reconstruction, we perform interactive organ segmentation to extract quantitative measurements of the fluorescence distribution.

Fluorescence-mediated tomography (FMT) enables longitudinal and quantitative determination of the fluorescence distribution in vivo and can be used to ...

Image-guided, Laser-based Fabrication of Vascular-derived Microfluidic Networks

This detailed protocol outlines the implementation of image-guided, laser-based hydrogel degradation for the fabrication of vascular-derived microfluidic networks embedded in PEGDA hydrogels. Here, we describe the creation of virtual masks that allow for image-guided laser control; the photopolymerization of a micromolded PEGDA hydrogel, suitable for microfluidic network fabrication and pressure head-driven flow; the setup and use of a commercially available laser scanning confocal microscope paired with a femtosecond pulsed Ti:S laser to induce hydrogel degradation; and the imaging of fabricated microfluidic networks using fluorescent species and confocal microscopy. Much of the protocol is focused on the proper setup and implementation of the microscope software and microscope macro, as these are crucial steps in using a commercial microscope for microfluidic fabrication purposes that contain a number of intricacies. The image-guided component of this technique allows for the implementation of 3D image stacks or user-generated 3D models, thereby allowing for creative microfluidic design and for the fabrication of complex microfluidic systems of virtually any configuration. With an expected impact in tissue engineering, the methods outlined in this protocol could aid in the fabrication of advanced biomimetic microtissue constructs for organ- and human-on-a-chip devices. By mimicking the complex architecture, tortuosity, size, and density of in vivo vasculature, essential biological transport processes can be replicated in these constructs, leading to more accurate in vitro modeling of drug pharmacokinetics and disease.

This protocol outlines the implementation of image-guided, laser-based hydrogel degradation to fabricate vascular-derived, biomimetic microfluidic networks embedded in poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) hydrogels. These biomimetic microfluidic systems may be useful for tissue engineering applications, generation of in vitro disease models, and fabrication of advanced "on-a-chip" devices.

This detailed protocol outlines the implementation of image-guided, laser-based hydrogel degradation for the fabrication of vascular-derived microfluidic ...

A Rapid Image-based Bacterial Virulence Assay Using Amoeba

Traditional bacterial virulence assays involve prolonged exposure of bacteria over the course of several hours to host cells. During this time, bacteria can undergo changes in the physiology due to the exposure to host growth environment and the presence of the host cells. We developed an assay to rapidly measure the virulence state of bacteria that minimize the extent to which bacteria grow in the presence of host cells. Bacteria and amoebae are mixed together and immobilized on a single imaging plane using an agar pad. The procedure uses single-cell fluorescence imaging with calcein-acetoxymethyl ester (calcein-AM) as an indicator of host cell health. The fluorescence of host cells is analyzed after 1 h of exposure of host cells to bacteria using epifluorescence microscopy. Image analysis software is used to compute a host killing index. This method has been used to measure virulence within planktonic and surface-attached Pseudomonas aeruginosa sub-populations during the initial stage of biofilm formation and may be adapted to other bacteria and other stages of biofilm growth. This protocol provides a rapid and robust method of measuring virulence and avoids many of the complexities associated with the growth and maintenance of mammalian cell lines. Virulence phenotypes measured here using amoebae have also been validated using mouse macrophages. In particular, this assay was used to establish that surface attachment upregulates virulence in P. aeruginosa.

Here, we present a protocol to measure the virulence of planktonic or surface-attached bacteria using D. discoideum (amoeba) as a host. Virulence is measured over a period of 1 h and host killing is quantified using fluorescence microscopy and image analysis. We demonstrate this protocol using the bacterium P. aeruginosa.

Traditional bacterial virulence assays involve prolonged exposure of bacteria over the course of several hours to host cells. During this time, bacteria ...

Quantifying Intermembrane Distances with Serial Image Dilations

A recently-described extracellular nanodomain, termed the perinexus, has been implicated in ephaptic coupling, which is an alternative mechanism for electrical conduction between cardiomyocytes. The current method for quantifying this space by manual segmentation is slow and has low spatial resolution.We developed an algorithm that uses serial image dilations of a binary outline to count the number of pixels between two opposing 2 dimensional edges.This algorithm requires fewer man hours and has a higher spatial resolution than the manual method while preserving the reproducibility of the manual process.In fact, experienced and novice investigators were able to recapitulate the results of a previous study with this new algorithm.The algorithm is limited by the human input needed to manually outline the perinexus and computational power mainly encumbered by a pre-existing pathfinding algorithm.However, the algorithm&#39;s high-throughput capabilities, high spatial resolution and reproducibility make it a versatile and robust measurement tool for use across a variety of applications requiring the measurement of the distance between any 2-dimensional (2D) edges.

The purpose of this algorithm is to continuously measure the distance between two 2-dimensional edges using serial image dilations and pathfinding. This algorithm can be applied to a variety of fields such as cardiac structural biology, vascular biology, and civil engineering.

A recently-described extracellular nanodomain, termed the perinexus, has been implicated in ephaptic coupling, which is an alternative mechanism for ...

Meso-Scale Particle Image Velocimetry Studies of Neurovascular Flows In Vitro

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is used in a wide variety of fields, due to the opportunity it provides for precisely visualizing and quantifying flows across a large spatiotemporal range. However, its implementation typically requires the use of expensive and specialized instrumentation, which limits its broader utility. Moreover, within the field of bioengineering, in vitro flow visualization studies are also often further limited by the high cost of commercially sourced tissue phantoms that recapitulate desired anatomical structures, particularly for those that span the mesoscale regime (i.e., submillimeter to millimeter length scales). Herein, we present a simplified experimental protocol developed to address these limitations, the key elements of which include 1) a relatively low-cost method for fabricating mesoscale tissue phantoms using 3-D printing and silicone casting, and 2) an open-source image analysis and processing framework that reduces the demand upon the instrumentation for measuring mesoscale flows (i.e., velocities up to tens of millimeters/second). Collectively, this lowers the barrier to entry for nonexperts, by leveraging resources already at the disposal of many bioengineering researchers. We demonstratethe applicability of this protocol within the context of neurovascular flow characterization; however, it is expected to be relevant to a broader range of mesoscale applications in bioengineering and beyond.

Meso-Scale Particle Image Velocimetry Studies of Neurovascular Flows In Vitro

Here we present simplified methods for fabricating transparent neurovascular phantoms and characterizing the flow therein. We highlight several important parameters and demonstrate their relationship to field accuracy.

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is used in a wide variety of fields, due to the opportunity it provides for precisely visualizing and quantifying flows ...

Area-based Image Analysis Algorithm for Quantification of Macrophage-fibroblast Cocultures

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Polymer Microarrays for High Throughput Discovery of Biomaterials

Micro-particle Image Velocimetry for Velocity Profile Measurements of Micro Blood Flows

Self-reporting Scaffolds for 3-Dimensional Cell Culture

Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing for the Quantification of Endothelial Proliferation, Barrier Function, and Motility

Quantification of Global Diastolic Function by Kinematic Modeling-based Analysis of Transmitral Flow via the Parametrized Diastolic Filling Formalism

Hybrid µCT-FMT imaging and image analysis

Image-guided, Laser-based Fabrication of Vascular-derived Microfluidic Networks

A Rapid Image-based Bacterial Virulence Assay Using Amoeba

Quantifying Intermembrane Distances with Serial Image Dilations

Meso-Scale Particle Image Velocimetry Studies of Neurovascular Flows In Vitro