עבודה זו נתמכה על ידי המועצה למחקר האוסטרלי תחת הצמדת פרויקט מענק LP120100264.

<ol>
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D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+parameter+variability+in+laser+nerve+stimulation:+A+study+of+pulse+duration,+repetition+rate,+and+wavelength.">Optical parameter variability in laser nerve stimulation: A study of pulse duration, repetition rate, and wavelength.</a> IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 54, 1108-1114 (2007).</li><li>Sakmann, B., Neher, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patch+clamp+techniques+for+studying+ionic+channels+in+excitable-membranes.">Patch clamp techniques for studying ionic channels in excitable-membranes.</a> Annual Review of Physiology. 46, 455-472 (1984).</li><li>Needham, K., Nayagam, B. A., Minter, R. L., O'Leary, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combined+application+of+brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor+and+neurotrophin-3+and+its+impact+on+spiral+ganglion+neuron+firing+properties+and+hyperpolarization-activated+currents.">Combined application of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 and its impact on spiral ganglion neuron firing properties and hyperpolarization-activated currents.</a> Hearing Research. 291, 1-14 (2012).</li><li>Coleman, B., Fallon, J. B., Pettingill, L. N., de Silva, M. G., Shepherd, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+hair+cell+explant+co-cultures+promote+the+differentiation+of+stem+cells+into+bipolar+neurons.">Auditory hair cell explant co-cultures promote the differentiation of stem cells into bipolar neurons.</a> Experimental Cell Research. 313, 232-243 (2007).</li><li>Whitlon, D. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+morphology+of+auditory+neurons+in+dissociated+cultures+of+newborn+mouse+spiral+ganglion.">Survival and morphology of auditory neurons in dissociated cultures of newborn mouse spiral ganglion.</a> Neuroscience. 138, 653-662 (1016).</li><li>Vieira, M., Christensen, B. L., Wheeler, B. C., Feng, A. S., Kollmar, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+stimulation+of+neurite+outgrowth+in+a+serum-free+culture+of+spiral+ganglion+neurons+from+adult+mice.">Survival and stimulation of neurite outgrowth in a serum-free culture of spiral ganglion neurons from adult mice.</a> Hearing Research. 230, 17-23 (2007).</li><li>Parker, M., Brugeaud, A., Edge, A. S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Primary+culture+and+plasmid+electroporation+of+the+murine+organ+of+corti.">Primary culture and plasmid electroporation of the murine organ of corti.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (36), e1685 (2010).</li><li>Thompson, A. C., Wade, S. A., Brown, W. G. A., Stoddart, P. 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המחברים אין לחשוף.

שימוש בפרוטוקולים שתוארו במאמר זה ניתן לחלץ ונוירונים הגנגליון ספירלה תרבות ולחקור לייזר עורר פעילות חשמלית על ידי ביצוע ניסויים שלמים מהדק תיקון סלולרי. כאשר נעשה שימוש במבחנה, טכניקת מהדק התיקון מספקת רמה של שליטה על פרמטרים של ניסוי שזה לא אפשרי בגוף חי.</em...

תחומי bionics נוירופיזיולוגיה והרפואי להסתמך בכבדות על טכניקות המאפשרות גירוי לשליטה של ​​תגובות חשמליות ברקמה עצבית. בעוד גירוי חשמלי נשאר תקן הזהב בעירור עצבי, הוא סובל ממספר חסרונות, כגון נוכחות של חפצי גירוי בעת הקלטת תגובות עצביות, וחוסר גירוי ספציפי בשל התפשטות נוכחית לתוך רקמה הסובבת 1. בשני העשורים האחרונים שראו את הפיתוח של טכניקות גירוי אופטי תיווך 2. כמה מטכניקות אלה דורשות שינוי של רקמות היעד, או באמצעות תוספת של מולקולה מסוימת (מולקולות כלוב למשל) 3 או צורה כלשהי של מניפולציה גנטית (למשל optogenetics) 4, אף אחת מהן הן קלים ליישום מחוץ למסגרת מחקר. עניין מיוחד ולכן הוא גירוי עצבי אינפרא אדום (INS), wherebרקמה העצבית Y היא נרגשת על ידי אור לייזר אינפרא אדום פעם. יש אח&quot;י הפוטנציאל להתגבר רבים מהחסרונות של גירוי חשמלי על ידי הפעלת גירוי של רקמה עצבית 2 מאוד ספציפי, ללא מגע. עם זאת, בעוד אח&quot;י הודגם בהצלחה במגוון רחב של הגדרות in vivo, המנגנון המדויק של עירור נשאר לא ברור. כמה פרסומים האחרונים הראו התקדמות לקראת גילוי המנגנון עומד מאחורי אח&quot;י 5-7. חימום מהיר עקב ספיגה של אור לייזר על ידי מים שנראה לשחק תפקיד מפתח. עם זאת, מעבר לכך קונסנסוס הוא עדיין לא הגיע. שפירא ואח&#39;. 7 להציע מנגנון כללי ביותר לפיה חימום מהיר גורם להפרעות בהפצה של חלקיקים טעונים הסמוכים לקרום התא, מה שמוביל לשינוי בקיבול של קרום התא ושלילת הקוטביות שלאחר מכן. בנוסף, אלברט ואח&#39;. 5 טוענים כי laseחימום המושרה R מפעיל מחלקה מסוימת של טמפרטורת תעלות יונים הרגישות (הקולטן החולף ערוצי vanilloid פוטנציאליים), המאפשר ליונים לעבור דרך קרום התא. בשלב זה לא ברור כיצד מנגנונים אלה לשלב, או אם אכן יש גורמים נוספים שעדיין לא זוהה. למרות מספר קטן של פרסומים (הפניות 5,7-9) חקרו אח&quot;י במבחנה, הרוב המכריע של עבודה שפורסם בתחום זה בוצע in vivo (למשל 1,6,10-18 הפניות). גירוי אינפרא אדום של נוירונים שמיעתיים כבר שטח של עניין מיוחד, בשל היישומים האפשריים בשתלי שבלול 10,14-18. בעוד בניסויי vivo הם חשובים כדי לוודא את היעילות של הטכניקה במסגרות שונות, הרמה המוגברת של שליטה המוענקת על ידי ניסויים במבחנה צפוי להוביל להבנה מפורטת יותר של mechליברטריאניות אחראית לאח&quot;י. דו&quot;ח זה מתאר את ההכנה של נוירונים בתרבית הגנגליון ספירלה לחקירות מהדק תיקון, כמו אלה יכולים לשמש כדי לחקור מנגנונים בסיסיים גם בעת קישור לגוף הגדול של נתונים קיימים ממערכת השמיעה. טכניקת מהדק התיקון היא כלי מצוין לחקירות של תופעות אלקטרו, לספק אמצעי הקלטת פעילות חשמלית בתאים בודדים ולומד את תרומתם של זרמי 19 הבודדים המשמשים כבסיס. כאשר טכניקה זו מיושמת לאורווה בהכנה במבחנה של נוירונים העיקרי, כגון תאי עצב הגנגליון ספירלה בתרבית, היא מציעה את ההזדמנות ללמוד לעומק את המנגנונים שבאמצעותם פעילות עצבית היא בשליטה ומניפולציה. הפרוטוקולים המפורטים בשיטות מתאר בעבודה זו לחוקרת את ההשפעה של גירוי לייזר על התכונות החשמליות של תאי עצב הגנגליון ספירלה באמצעות מהדק תיקוןהקלטות. הגישה מבוססת על לייזר סיב מצמידים ולא לייזר ללא מרחב, מאפשרת תפעול בטוח יותר, כמו גם קל יותר לשחזור יישור ללא הצורך לשנות את תצורת מיקרוסקופ הרגילה. על בסיס הפרוטוקולים הללו, זה צריך להיות אפשרי לביצוע מגוון רחב של ניסויים במטרה בצורה ברורה יותר על מנת לקבוע את המנגנון או מנגנונים מאחורי אח&quot;י.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalog Number</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Cell culture materials and equipment </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Glass coverslips</td>
 <td>Lomb Scientific</td>
 <td>CSC 10 1 GP</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>4-ring cell culture dish </td>
 <td>VWR International</td>
 <td>82050-542</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Poly-L-ornithine solution</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>P4957</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Laminin</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>23017-015</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Curved forceps</td>
 <td>WPI</td>
 <td>14101</td>
 <td>Dumont #5 tweezers (45&deg; angle tip)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CO2 Incubator</td>
 <td>ThermoScientific</td>
 <td>Heracell 150i</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 1. Cell culture materials and equipment.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Neurobasal media</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Neurobasal A</td>
 <td>Gibco</td>
 <td>10888-022</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>N-2 supplement</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>17502-048</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>B27 serum-free supplement</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>17504-044</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>15140-148</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>L-Glutamine</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>25030-149</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Intracellular solution</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>P4504</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>HEPES</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>H4034</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium D-gluconate</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G4500</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>EGTA</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>E3889</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Na2ATP</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A2383</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>MgATP</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A9187</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NaGTP</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G8877</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium hydroxide</td>
 <td>LabServ</td>
 <td>BSPPL738.500</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sucrose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>S8501</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Extracellular solution </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sodium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>310166</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>P4504</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>HEPES</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>H4034</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Calcium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>383147</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Magnesium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>M8266</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>D-Glucose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G8270</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
 <td>LabServ</td>
 <td>BSPSL740.500</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sucrose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>S8501</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 2. Solutions for cell culture and patch clamp. a) Neurobasal media. b) Intracellular solution. c) Extracellular solution.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Upright microscope</td>
 <td>Zeiss </td>
 <td>AxioExaminerD1</td>
 <td>Equipped with Dodt contrast </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Water-immersion objective</td>
 <td>Zeiss</td>
 <td>W Plan-APOCHROMAT 40x/0.75</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Platform and X-Y stage </td>
 <td>ThorLabs</td>
 <td>Burleigh Gibraltar</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Recording chamber</td>
 <td>Warner Instruments</td>
 <td>RC-26G</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Vibration isolation table</td>
 <td>TMC</td>
 <td>Micro-g 63-532</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CCD Camera</td>
 <td>Diagnostic Instruments</td>
 <td>RT1200</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Camera software</td>
 <td>Diagnostic Instruments</td>
 <td>SPOT Basic</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>In-line solution heater</td>
 <td>Warner</td>
 <td>SH-27B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Temperature controller</td>
 <td>Warner</td>
 <td>TC-324B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Patch clamp amplifier</td>
 <td>Molecular Devices</td>
 <td>Multiclamp 700B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Patch clamp data acquisition system</td>
 <td>Molecular Devices</td>
 <td>Digidata 1440A</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micromanipulator</td>
 <td>Sutter Instruments</td>
 <td>MPC-325</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micropipette glass</td>
 <td>Sutter Instruments</td>
 <td>GBF100-58-15</td>
 <td>Borosilicate glass with filament</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micropipette Puller</td>
 <td>Sutter Instruments</td>
 <td>P2000</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Recording Software</td>
 <td>AxoGraph</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Lab pack and electrophysiology tools</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Aspirator bottle</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>CLS12201L</td>
 <td>1 L Pyrex aspirator bottle, with outlet for tubing</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>PE Tubing</td>
 <td>Harvard</td>
 <td>PolyE #340</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Masterflex peristaltic pump</td>
 <td>Cole-Parmer</td>
 <td>HV-07554-85</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 3.Patch clamp equipment.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>1,870 nm laser diode</td>
 <td>Optotech</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>200/220 &mu;m diameter multimode optical fiber patch cord (FC/PC)</td>
 <td>AFW Technologies</td>
 <td>MM1-FC2-200/220-5-C-0.22</td>
 <td>Light delivery optical fiber, silica core and cladding, 0.22 NA</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber through connector (FC/PC)</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>ADAFC2</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber cleaver</td>
 <td>EREM</td>
 <td>FO1 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber stripping tool (0.25 - 0.6 mm) </td>
 <td>Siemens</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>For removing optical fiber jacket</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber stripping tool (0.6 - 1.0 mm)</td>
 <td>Siemens</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>For removing outer coating of patch cord</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Signal generator</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Any signal generator that can output the necessary pulse shapes and is capable of being externally triggered</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber positioner</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Custom made positioner. Could substitute with standard micropositioner used for patch clamp experiments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber chuck</td>
 <td>Newport</td>
 <td>FPH-DJ</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Laser power meter and detector head</td>
 <td>Coherent</td>
 <td>FieldMate (power meter) with LM-3 (detector head)</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 4. Laser equipment.</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

whole cell patch clamp for investigating the mechanisms of infrared neural stimulation

זה כבר הוכיח בשנים האחרונות כי אור לייזר פעם, אינפרא אדום יכול לשמש כדי לעורר תגובה חשמלית ברקמה עצבית, ללא תלות בכל שינוי נוסף של רקמת המטרה. גירוי עצבי אינפרא אדום כבר דיווח במגוון רחב של רקמה עצבית היקפית וחושית in vivo, בעניין מסוים שמוצג בגירוי של תאי עצב בעצב השמיעה. עם זאת, בעוד אח&quot;י הוכח לעבוד בהגדרות אלה, המנגנון (או מנגנונים) שבאמצעותו אור אינפרא אדום גורם לעירור עצבי כיום אינו מובן היטב. הפרוטוקול המובא כאן מתאר את כל שיטת תיקון מהדק תא שנועדה להקל על החקירה של גירוי עצבי אינפרא אדום בנוירונים שמיעתיים ראשוניים בתרבית. על ידי ביסודיות המאפיין את התגובה של תאים אלה לתאורת לייזר אינפרא אדום במבחנה בתנאים מבוקרים, זה עשוי להיות אפשרי כדי להשיג הבנה משופרת של Physica היסודיl ותהליכים ביוכימיים שבבסיס גירוי עצבי אינפרא אדום.

נוירונים הגנגליון ספירלה להגיב לתאורת לייזר עם צורות גל הדיר בשני תצורות הקלטה נוכחי, מהדק מתח ומהדק. 3a איור מראה שינויים אופייניים בזרימה הנוכחית על פני קרום תא בתגובה ל2.5 אלפיות שנייה, 0.8 mJ דופק לייזר (תגובה ממוצעת מ6 פעימות לייזר, שחזרו במרווחים של 1 SEC) עם פו...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Whole Cell Patch Clamp for Investigating the Mechanisms of Infrared Neural Stimulation at JoVE.com

Whole Cell Patch Clamp for Investigating the Mechanisms of Infrared Neural Stimulation

גירוי עצב אינפרא אדום הוצע כחלופה לגירוי חשמלי במגוון רחב של סוגי עצב, כוללים אלה הקשורים למערכת השמיעה. פרוטוקול זה מתאר שיטת תיקון מהדק ללימוד המנגנון של גירוי עצב אינפרא אדום בתרבות של נוירונים שמיעתיים ראשוניים.

הצמד תיקון נייד לכל חוקר את המנגנונים של גירוי עצבי אינפרא אדום

It has been  demonstrated in recent years that pulsed, infrared laser light can be used to  elicit electrical responses in neural tissue, independent of ...

whole-cell-patch-clamp-for-investigating-mechanisms-infrared-neural

Universidad de Cartagena UDEC

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

20.9K Views.  Swinburne University of Technology. גירוי עצב אינפרא אדום הוצע כחלופה לגירוי חשמלי במגוון רחב של סוגי עצב, כוללים אלה הקשורים למערכת השמיעה. פרוטוקול זה מתאר שיטת תיקון מהדק ללימוד המנגנון של גירוי עצב אינפרא אדום בתרבות של נוירונים שמיעתיים ראשוניים.

Video: Whole Cell Patch Clamp for Investigating the Mechanisms of Infrared Neural Stimulation

Investigating the Neural Mechanisms of Aware and Unaware Fear Memory with fMRI

Pavlovian fear conditioning is often used in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in humans to investigate the neural substrates of associative learning 1-5. In these studies, it is important to provide behavioral evidence of conditioning to verify that differences in brain activity are learning-related and correlated with human behavior. 
Fear conditioning studies often monitor autonomic responses (e.g. skin conductance response; SCR) as an index of learning and memory 6-8. In addition, other behavioral measures can provide valuable information about the learning process and/or other cognitive functions that influence conditioning. For example, the impact unconditioned stimulus (UCS) expectancies have on the expression of the conditioned response (CR) and unconditioned response (UCR) has been a topic of interest in several recent studies 9-14. SCR and UCS expectancy measures have recently been used in conjunction with fMRI to investigate the neural substrates of aware and unaware fear learning and memory processes 15. Although these cognitive processes can be evaluated to some degree following the conditioning session, post-conditioning assessments cannot measure expectations on a trial-to-trial basis and are susceptible to interference and forgetting, as well as other factors that may distort results 16,17 .
Monitoring autonomic and behavioral responses simultaneously with fMRI provides a mechanism by which the neural substrates that mediate complex relationships between cognitive processes and behavioral/autonomic responses can be assessed. However, monitoring autonomic and behavioral responses in the MRI environment poses a number of practical problems. Specifically, 1) standard behavioral and physiological monitoring equipment is constructed of ferrous material that cannot be safely used near the MRI scanner, 2) when this equipment is placed outside of the MRI scanning chamber, the cables projecting to the subject can carry RF noise that produces artifacts in brain images, 3) artifacts can be produced within the skin conductance signal by switching gradients during scanning, 4) the fMRI signal produced by the motor demands of behavioral responses may need to be distinguished from activity related to the cognitive processes of interest. Each of these issues can be resolved with modifications to the setup of physiological monitoring equipment and additional data analysis procedures. Here we present a methodology to simultaneously monitor autonomic and behavioral responses during fMRI, and demonstrate the use of these methods to investigate aware and unaware memory processes during fear conditioning.

A methodology to investigate the neural mechanisms that support aware and unaware memory processes during fear conditioning is described. This method monitors blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging, skin conductance response, and unconditioned stimulus expectancy during Pavlovian fear conditioning to assess the neural correlates of distinct memory processes.

לחקור את המנגנונים העצביים של זיכרון הפחד מודע ולא מודע עם fMRI

Pavlovian fear conditioning is often used in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in humans to investigate the neural substrates ...

A Computer-assisted Multi-electrode Patch-clamp System

The patch-clamp technique is today the most well-established method for recording electrical activity from individual neurons or their subcellular compartments. Nevertheless, achieving stable recordings, even from individual cells, remains a time-consuming procedure of considerable complexity. Automation of many steps in conjunction with efficient information display can greatly assist experimentalists in performing a larger number of recordings with greater reliability and in less time. In order to achieve large-scale recordings we concluded the most efficient approach is not to fully automatize the process but to simplify the experimental steps and reduce the chances of human error while efficiently incorporating the experimenter's experience and visual feedback. With these goals in mind we developed a computer-assisted system which centralizes all the controls necessary for a multi-electrode patch-clamp experiment in a single interface, a commercially available wireless gamepad, while displaying experiment related information and guidance cues on the computer screen. Here we describe the different components of the system which allowed us to reduce the time required for achieving the recording configuration and substantially increase the chances of successfully recording large numbers of neurons simultaneously.

Multi-electrode patch-clamp recordings constitute a complex task. Here we show how, by automating of many of the experimental steps, it is possible to accelerate the process leading to qualitative improvement in performance and number of recordings.

מערכת תיקון מהדק Multi-אלקטרודה בסיוע מחשב

The patch-clamp technique is today the most  well-established method for recording electrical activity from individual  neurons or their subcellular ...

Whole Mount Immunolabeling of Olfactory Receptor Neurons in the Drosophila Antenna

Odorant molecules bind to their target receptors in a precise and coordinated manner. Each receptor recognizes a specific signal and relays this information to the brain. As such, determining how olfactory information is transferred to the brain, modifying both perception and behavior, merits investigation. Interestingly, there is emerging evidence that cellular transduction and transcriptional factors are involved in the diversification of olfactory receptor neuron. Here we provide a robust whole mount immunological labeling method to assay in vivo olfactory receptor neuron organization. Using this method, we identified all olfactory receptor neurons with anti-ELAV antibody, a known pan-neural marker and Or49a-mCD8::GFP, an olfactory receptor neuron specifically expressed in Nba neuron using anti-GFP antibody.

Whole Mount Immunolabeling of Olfactory Receptor Neurons in the Drosophila Antenna

Herein we describe the process of whole mount immunostaining of Drosophila antennae, which enables us to better understand the molecular mechanisms involved in the diversification of olfactory receptor neurons (ORN)s.

הר immunolabeling השלם של חוש הריח קולטן נוירונים<em&gt; דרוזופילה</em&gt; אנטנה

Odorant molecules bind to their target receptors in a precise and coordinated manner. Each receptor recognizes a specific signal and relays this ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings from Morphologically- and Neurochemically-identified Hippocampal Interneurons

GABAergic inhibitory interneurons play a central role within neuronal circuits of the brain. Interneurons comprise a small subset of the neuronal population (10-20%), but show a high level of physiological, morphological, and neurochemical heterogeneity, reflecting their diverse functions. Therefore, investigation of interneurons provides important insights into the organization principles and function of neuronal circuits. This, however, requires an integrated physiological and neuroanatomical approach for the selection and identification of individual interneuron types. Whole-cell patch-clamp recording from acute brain slices of transgenic animals, expressing fluorescent proteins under the promoters of interneuron-specific markers, provides an efficient method to target and electrophysiologically characterize intrinsic and synaptic properties of specific interneuron types. Combined with intracellular dye labeling, this approach can be extended with post-hoc morphological and immunocytochemical analysis, enabling systematic identification of recorded neurons. These methods can be tailored to suit a broad range of scientific questions regarding functional properties of diverse types of cortical neurons.

Cortical networks are controlled by a small, but diverse set of inhibitory interneurons. Functional investigation of interneurons therefore requires targeted recording and rigorous identification. Described here is a combined approach involving whole-cell recordings from single or synaptically-coupled pairs of neurons with intracellular labeling, post-hoc morphological and immunocytochemical analysis.

הקלטות תיקון מהדק כל התא מMorphologically- וinterneurons היפוקמפוס זיהה Neurochemically

GABAergic inhibitory interneurons play a central role within neuronal circuits of the brain. Interneurons comprise a small subset of the neuronal ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings in Brain Slices

Whole-cell patch-clamp recording is an electrophysiological technique that allows the study of the&#160;electrical properties of a substantial part of the neuron. In this configuration, the micropipette is in tight contact with the cell membrane, which prevents current leakage and thereby provides more accurate ionic current measurements than the previously used intracellular sharp electrode recording method. Classically, whole-cell recording can be performed on neurons in various types of preparations, including cell culture models, dissociated neurons, neurons in brain slices, and in intact anesthetized or awake animals. In summary, this technique has immensely contributed to the understanding of passive and active biophysical properties of excitable cells. A major advantage of this technique is that it provides information on how specific manipulations (e.g., pharmacological, experimenter-induced plasticity) may alter specific neuronal functions or channels in real-time. Additionally, significant opening of the plasma membrane allows the internal pipette solution to freely diffuse into the cytoplasm, providing means for introducing drugs, e.g., agonists or antagonists of specific intracellular proteins, and manipulating these targets without altering their functions in neighboring cells. This article will focus on whole-cell recording performed on neurons in brain slices,&#160;a preparation that has the advantage of recording neurons in relatively well preserved brain circuits, i.e., in a physiologically relevant context. In particular,&#160;when combined with appropriate pharmacology, this technique is a powerful tool allowing identification of specific neuroadaptations that occurred following any type of experiences, such as learning, exposure to drugs of abuse, and stress. In summary, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices provide means to measure in ex vivo preparation long-lasting changes in neuronal functions that have developed in intact awake animals.

This protocol describes basic procedural steps for performing whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. This technique allows the study of&#160;the electrical behavior of neurons, and when performed in brain slices, allows the assessment of various neuronal functions from neurons that are still integrated in relatively well preserved brain circuits.

הקלטות תיקון מהדק כל תא פרוסות המוח

Whole-cell patch-clamp recording is an electrophysiological technique that allows the study of the&#160;electrical properties of a substantial part of the ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

Over the past decade, channelrhodopsins became indispensable in neuroscientific research where they are used as tools to non-invasively manipulate electrical processes in target cells. In this context, ion selectivity of a channelrhodopsin is of particular importance. This article describes the investigation of chloride selectivity for a recently identified anion-conducting channelrhodopsin of Proteomonas sulcata via electrophysiological patch-clamp recordings on HEK293 cells. The experimental procedure for measuring light-gated photocurrents demands a fast switchable &#8211; ideally monochromatic &#8211; light source coupled into the microscope of an otherwise conventional patch-clamp setup. Preparative procedures prior to the experiment are outlined involving preparation of buffered solutions, considerations on liquid junction potentials, seeding and transfection of cells, and pulling of patch pipettes. The actual recording of current-voltage relations to determine the reversal potentials for different chloride concentrations takes place 24 h to 48 h after transfection. Finally, electrophysiological data are analyzed with respect to theoretical considerations of chloride conduction.

This article describes how the ion selectivity of channelrhodopsin is determined with electrophysiological whole-cell patch-clamp recordings using HEK293 cells. Here, the experimental procedure for investigating chloride selectivity of an anion-selective channelrhodopsin is demonstrated. However, the procedure is transferable to other channelrhodopsins of distinct selectivity.

תא שלם תיקון מהדק הקלטות עבור קביעת electrophysiological של יון סלקטיביות ב Channelrhodopsins

Over the past decade, channelrhodopsins became indispensable in neuroscientific research where they are used as tools to non-invasively manipulate ...

Electrophysiological Method for Whole-cell Voltage Clamp Recordings from Drosophila Photoreceptors

Whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from Drosophila melanogaster photoreceptors have revolutionized the field of invertebrate visual transduction, enabling the use of D. melanogaster molecular genetics to study inositol-lipid signaling and Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channels at the single-molecule level. A handful of labs have mastered this powerful technique, which enables the analysis of the physiological responses to light under highly controlled conditions. This technique allows control over the intracellular and extracellular media; the membrane voltage; and the fast application of pharmacological compounds, such as a variety of ionic or pH indicators, to the intra- and extracellular media. With an exceptionally high signal-to-noise ratio, this method enables the measurement of dark spontaneous and light-induced unitary currents (i.e.&#160;spontaneous and quantum bumps) and macroscopic Light-induced Currents (LIC) from single D. melanogaster photoreceptors. This protocol outlines, in great detail, all the key steps necessary to perform this technique, which includes both electrophysiological and optical recordings. The fly retina dissection procedure for the attainment of intact and viable ex vivo isolated ommatidia in the bath chamber is described. The equipment needed to perform whole-cell and fluorescence imaging measurements are also detailed. Finally, the pitfalls in using this delicate preparation during extended experiments are explained.

Electrophysiological Method for Whole-cell Voltage Clamp Recordings from Drosophila Photoreceptors

Whole-cell recordings from Drosophila melanogaster photoreceptors enable the measurement of spontaneous dark bumps, quantum bumps, macroscopic responses to light, and current-voltage relationships under various conditions. In combination with D. melanogaster genetic manipulation tools, this method enables the study of the ubiquitous inositol-lipid signaling pathway and its target, the TRP channel.

שיטה אלקטרו-קולית לקולקציית מתח מלא<em&gt; תסיסנית</em&gt; פוטורספטורים

Whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from Drosophila melanogaster photoreceptors have revolutionized the field of invertebrate visual transduction, ...

Time-dependent Increase in the Network Response to the Stimulation of Neuronal Cell Cultures on Micro-electrode Arrays

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network dynamics in neuronal cultures. In contrast with more traditional methods, such as patch-clamping, which can only record activity from a single cell, MEAs can record simultaneously from multiple sites in a network, without requiring the arduous task of placing each electrode individually. Moreover, numerous control and stimulation configurations can be easily applied within the same experimental setup, allowing for a broad range of dynamics to be explored. One of the key dynamics of interest in these in vitro studies has been the extent to which cultured networks display properties indicative of learning. Mouse neuronal cells cultured on MEAs display an increase in response following training induced by electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neuronal cells on MEAs; successfully record from over 95% of the plated dishes; establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation; and sort, plot, and interpret the results from such experiments. The use of a proprietary system for stimulating and recording neuronal cultures is demonstrated. Software packages are also used to sort neuronal units. A custom-designed graphical user interface is used to visualize post-stimulus time histograms, inter-burst intervals, and burst duration, as well as to compare the cellular response to stimulation before and after a training protocol. Finally, representative results and future directions of this research effort are discussed.

Mouse neuronal cells cultured on multi-electrode arrays display an increase in response following electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neurons, how to record activity, and how to establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation.

זמן תלויי תגובת הרשת בתגובה לגירוי של תרבויות תאים עצביים על מערכי מיקרו-אלקטרודה

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network ...

Slice Patch Clamp Technique for Analyzing Learning-Induced Plasticity

The slice patch clamp technique is a powerful tool for investigating learning-induced neural plasticity in specific brain regions. To analyze motor-learning induced plasticity, we trained rats using an accelerated rotor rod task. Rats performed the task 10 times at 30-s intervals for 1 or 2 days. Performance was significantly improved on the training days compared to the first trial. We then prepared acute brain slices of the primary motor cortex (M1) in untrained and trained rats. Current-clamp analysis showed dynamic changes in resting membrane potential, spike threshold, afterhyperpolarization, and membrane resistance in layer II/III pyramidal neurons. Current injection induced many more spikes in 2-day trained rats than in untrained controls.
To analyze contextual-learning induced plasticity, we trained rats using an inhibitory avoidance (IA) task. After experiencing foot-shock in the dark side of a box, the rats learned to avoid it, staying in the lighted side. We prepared acute hippocampal slices from untrained, IA-trained, unpaired, and walk-through rats. Voltage-clamp analysis was used to sequentially record miniature excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs and mIPSCs) from the same CA1 neuron. We found different mean mEPSC and mIPSC amplitudes in each CA1 neuron, suggesting that each neuron had different postsynaptic strengths at its excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Moreover, compared with untrained controls, IA-trained rats had higher mEPSC and mIPSC amplitudes, with broad diversity. These results suggested that contextual learning creates postsynaptic diversity in both excitatory and inhibitory synapses at each CA1 neuron.
AMPA or GABAA receptors seemed to mediate the postsynaptic currents, since bath treatment with CNQX or bicuculline blocked the mEPSC or mIPSC events, respectively. This technique can be used to study different types of learning in other regions, such as the sensory cortex and amygdala.

The slice patch clamp technique is an effective method for analyzing learning-induced changes in the intrinsic properties and plasticity of excitatory or inhibitory synapses.

פרוסה תיקון קלאמפ טכניקת ניתוח הנוצרות על-ידי למידה פלסטיות

The slice patch clamp technique is a powerful tool for investigating learning-induced neural plasticity in specific brain regions. To analyze ...

Auditory Brainstem Response and Outer Hair Cell Whole-cell Patch Clamp Recording in Postnatal Rats

The outer hair cell is one of the two types of sensory hair cells in the mammalian cochlea. They alter their cell length with the receptor potential to amplify the weak vibration of low-level sound signal. The morphology and electrophysiological property of outer hair cells (OHCs) develop in early postnatal ages. The maturation of outer hair cell may contribute to the development of the auditory system. However, the process of OHCs development is not well studied. This is partly because of the difficulty to measure their function by an electrophysiological approach. With the purpose of developing a simple method to address the above issue, here we describe a step-by-step protocol to study the function of OHCs in acutely dissociated cochlea from postnatal rats. With this method, we can evaluate the cochlear response to pure tone stimuli and examine the expression level and function of the motor protein prestin in OHCs. This method can also be used to investigate the inner hair cells (IHCs).

This protocol describes methods to record the auditory brainstem response from postnatal rat pups. To examine the functional development of outer hair cells, the experimental procedure of whole-cell patch clamp recording in isolated outer hair cells is described step-by-step.

גזע המוח השמיעתית תגובה והקלטה החיצוני תא שיער תיקון שלם-תא קלאמפ בחולדות כמחנכת

The outer hair cell is one of the two types of sensory hair cells in the mammalian cochlea. They alter their cell length with the receptor potential to ...

הצמד תיקון נייד לכל חוקר את המנגנונים של גירוי עצבי אינפרא אדום

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